J Food Bioact

Journal of Food Bioactives, ISSN 2637-8752 print, 2637-8779 online

Journal website www.isnff-jfb.com

Review

Volume 27, September 2024, pages 1-14

Edible flowers: a sustainable source of natural food ingredient

**Table 1.** Functions of flower parts
Flower Part	Function	References
Petal	Attracts pollinators with its vibrant color and fragrance; enhances the aesthetic appeal of dishes.	Sindhuja (2023)
Stamen	Male reproductive organ that produces and releases pollen for fertilization.	Nicolau and Gostin (2016)
Pistil	Female reproductive organ; the ovary contains ovules, and the style connects the stigma to the ovary.	Nicolau and Gostin (2016)
Nectar Glands	Secretes nectar to attract pollinators like insects.	Jeiter et al. (2017)
Peduncle	Supports the flower and connects it to the plant.	Ganino et al. (2011)
Sepal	Protects the flower bud; resembles small leaves; sometimes edible.	Jeiter et al. (2017)
Receptacle	Base of the flower where all parts are attached.	Jeiter et al. (2017)
Ovary	Contains and protects ovules; develops into fruit post-fertilization.	Nicolau and Gostin (2016)
Anther	Upper part of the stamen that produces and releases pollen.	Chen et al. (2020)
Style	Connects the stigma to the ovary, facilitating the passage of pollen.	Zheng et al. (2018)
Stigma	Sticky surface at the pistil’s tip that captures pollen during pollination.	Zheng et al. (2018)

Table 1. Functions of flower parts

Flower Part

Function

References

Petal

Attracts pollinators with its vibrant color and fragrance; enhances the aesthetic appeal of dishes.

Sindhuja (2023)

Stamen

Male reproductive organ that produces and releases pollen for fertilization.

Nicolau and Gostin (2016)

Pistil

Female reproductive organ; the ovary contains ovules, and the style connects the stigma to the ovary.

Nicolau and Gostin (2016)

Nectar Glands

Secretes nectar to attract pollinators like insects.

Jeiter et al. (2017)

Peduncle

Supports the flower and connects it to the plant.

Ganino et al. (2011)

Sepal

Protects the flower bud; resembles small leaves; sometimes edible.

Jeiter et al. (2017)

Receptacle

Base of the flower where all parts are attached.

Jeiter et al. (2017)

Ovary

Contains and protects ovules; develops into fruit post-fertilization.

Nicolau and Gostin (2016)

Anther

Upper part of the stamen that produces and releases pollen.

Chen et al. (2020)

Style

Connects the stigma to the ovary, facilitating the passage of pollen.

Zheng et al. (2018)

Stigma

Sticky surface at the pistil’s tip that captures pollen during pollination.

Zheng et al. (2018)

**Table 2.** Functional uses and applications of edible flowers
Aspect	Flowers	Usage	References
Vibrant Colors	Marigold, Pansy, Nasturtium	Adds vibrant hues to salads, drinks, and desserts, enhancing visual appeal.	Shantamma et al. (2021)
Flavor	Hibiscus, Lavender, Chive Blossom, Rose, Jasmine, Chamomile, Dandelion, Violet, Fennel Blossom	Contributes tangy (Hibiscus), floral (Lavender), or savory (Chive) flavors to teas, desserts, sauces, and adds floral or herbal aromas to beverages.	Asif et al. (2023) Fernandes et al. (2017)
Aesthetic Enhancement	Borage, Calendula, Orchid	Used to decorate cakes, cocktails, and salads with their bright colors and intricate shapes.	Rivas-García et al. (2021)
Texture Variation	Squash Blossom, Rose Petal, Tulip Petal	Provides soft textures (Rose petals) for salads or crunchy elements (Squash blossoms) for savory dishes.	Mulík, and Ozuna (2020)
Culinary Versatility	Marigold, Lavender, Basil Blossom	Versatile in the kitchen, used raw in salads or cooked in soups, sauces, and desserts for both flavor and decoration.	Chen et al. (2020)
Health Properties	Hibiscus, Dandelion, Sunflower Petal	High in antioxidants and vitamins (e.g., Vitamin C in Hibiscus), commonly used in teas and health-focused beverages.	Fernandes et al. (2020)

Table 2. Functional uses and applications of edible flowers

Aspect

Flowers

Usage

References

Vibrant Colors

Marigold, Pansy, Nasturtium

Adds vibrant hues to salads, drinks, and desserts, enhancing visual appeal.

Shantamma et al. (2021)

Flavor

Hibiscus, Lavender, Chive Blossom, Rose, Jasmine, Chamomile, Dandelion, Violet, Fennel Blossom

Contributes tangy (Hibiscus), floral (Lavender), or savory (Chive) flavors to teas, desserts, sauces, and adds floral or herbal aromas to beverages.

Asif et al. (2023)
Fernandes et al. (2017)

Aesthetic Enhancement

Borage, Calendula, Orchid

Used to decorate cakes, cocktails, and salads with their bright colors and intricate shapes.

Rivas-García et al. (2021)

Texture Variation

Squash Blossom, Rose Petal, Tulip Petal

Provides soft textures (Rose petals) for salads or crunchy elements (Squash blossoms) for savory dishes.

Mulík, and Ozuna (2020)

Culinary Versatility

Marigold, Lavender, Basil Blossom

Versatile in the kitchen, used raw in salads or cooked in soups, sauces, and desserts for both flavor and decoration.

Chen et al. (2020)

Health Properties

Hibiscus, Dandelion, Sunflower Petal

High in antioxidants and vitamins (e.g., Vitamin C in Hibiscus), commonly used in teas and health-focused beverages.

Fernandes et al. (2020)

**Table 3.** Overview of nutrients and health benefits in edible flowers
Nutrient Category	Nutrient	Edible Flower Examples	Key Functions and Benefits	References
Antioxidants	Anthocyanins	Red, Purple, and Blue Flowers: Pansy, Violet, Blue Butterfly Pea	Protect against chronic diseases, provide anti-inflammatory benefits, and support cardiovascular health.	Teixeira et al. (2023)
	Carotenoids	Bright-Colored Flowers: Marigold, Calendula, Nasturtiums	Support eye health, reduce oxidative stress, and improve immune function.	Crupi et al. (2023)
	Flavonoids	Rose, Hibiscus, Lavender	Provide anti-inflammatory properties, improve cardiovascular health, and reduce the risk of chronic diseases.	Janarny et al. (2021)
	Polyphenols	Chamomile, Dandelion, Elderflower	Reduce inflammation, protect cardiovascular health, and prevent oxidative damage.	Maleš et al., (2022)
Vitamins	Vitamin C	Roses, Hibiscus, Elderflower	Acts as a powerful antioxidant, protecting cells from free radical damage and boosting overall immunity.	Mercola (2021)
	Vitamin E	Sunflower Petals, Pansy	Protects cellular membranes from oxidative damage, promotes skin health, and improves immune response.	Uniyal and Kumar (2024)
	Vitamin A	Calendula, Nasturtiums	Essential for promoting healthy vision, immune function, skin health, and cell growth.	Bohra and Visen, (2022)
	Vitamin B (Folate - B9)	Chive Blossoms, Nasturtiums	Necessary for DNA synthesis, cell division, and fetal development during pregnancy.	Socha et al., (2021)
	Vitamin E	Sunflower Petals, Pansy	Protects cells from oxidative damage, supports immune function, and maintains healthy skin and eyes.	Uniyal and Kumar (2024)
	Vitamin K	Borage, Chamomile	Vital for blood clotting, bone metabolism, and regulating calcium in the body.	Maleš et al., (2022)
Minerals	Calcium	Borage, Chamomile	Essential for bone health, muscle contraction, and blood vessel function.	Socha et al., (2021)
	Copper	Rose Petals, Violets	Aids in connective tissue formation, energy production, and brain health.	Uniyal and Kumar (2024)
	Iron	Nasturtiums, Pansy	Vital for hemoglobin formation, oxygen transport, and preventing anemia.	Matejić et al., (2024)
	Magnesium	Calendula, Sunflower Petals	Involved in energy production, muscle function, nerve function, and reducing inflammation.	Bohra and Visen, (2022)
	Potassium	Hibiscus, Elderflower	Regulates fluid balance, supports muscle contractions, and helps maintain normal nerve function.	Maleš et al., (2022)
	Zinc	Chive Blossoms, Nasturtiums	Important for immune function, wound healing, and DNA synthesis.	Socha et al., (2021)
Other Nutritional Benefits	Dietary Fiber	Dandelion, Violet, Hibiscus	Supports digestion, promotes healthy cholesterol levels, and helps regulate blood sugar.	Jakubczyk et al., (2022)
	Fatty Acids	Sunflower Petals, Nasturtiums	Low in fatty acids but may contain small amounts of heart-healthy unsaturated fats.	Teixeira et al. (2023)
	Calories	Marigold, Chamomile, Pansy	Adds flavor, color, and texture to dishes without contributing significant calories.	Janarny et al. (2021)
	Protein	Dandelion, Nasturtiums, Pansy	Contains small amounts of protein (1–4%), contributing to muscle repair, tissue building, and overall growth.	Teixeira et al. (2023)

Table 3. Overview of nutrients and health benefits in edible flowers

Nutrient Category

Nutrient

Edible Flower Examples

Key Functions and Benefits

References

Antioxidants

Anthocyanins

Red, Purple, and Blue Flowers: Pansy, Violet, Blue Butterfly Pea

Protect against chronic diseases, provide anti-inflammatory benefits, and support cardiovascular health.

Teixeira et al. (2023)

Carotenoids

Bright-Colored Flowers: Marigold, Calendula, Nasturtiums

Support eye health, reduce oxidative stress, and improve immune function.

Crupi et al. (2023)

Flavonoids

Rose, Hibiscus, Lavender

Provide anti-inflammatory properties, improve cardiovascular health, and reduce the risk of chronic diseases.

Janarny et al. (2021)

Polyphenols

Chamomile, Dandelion, Elderflower

Reduce inflammation, protect cardiovascular health, and prevent oxidative damage.

Maleš et al., (2022)

Vitamins

Vitamin C

Roses, Hibiscus, Elderflower

Acts as a powerful antioxidant, protecting cells from free radical damage and boosting overall immunity.

Mercola (2021)

Vitamin E

Sunflower Petals, Pansy

Protects cellular membranes from oxidative damage, promotes skin health, and improves immune response.

Uniyal and Kumar (2024)

Vitamin A

Calendula, Nasturtiums

Essential for promoting healthy vision, immune function, skin health, and cell growth.

Bohra and Visen, (2022)

Vitamin B (Folate - B9)

Chive Blossoms, Nasturtiums

Necessary for DNA synthesis, cell division, and fetal development during pregnancy.

Socha et al., (2021)

Vitamin E

Sunflower Petals, Pansy

Protects cells from oxidative damage, supports immune function, and maintains healthy skin and eyes.

Uniyal and Kumar (2024)

Vitamin K

Borage, Chamomile

Vital for blood clotting, bone metabolism, and regulating calcium in the body.

Maleš et al., (2022)

Minerals

Calcium

Borage, Chamomile

Essential for bone health, muscle contraction, and blood vessel function.

Socha et al., (2021)

Copper

Rose Petals, Violets

Aids in connective tissue formation, energy production, and brain health.

Uniyal and Kumar (2024)

Iron

Nasturtiums, Pansy

Vital for hemoglobin formation, oxygen transport, and preventing anemia.

Matejić et al., (2024)

Magnesium

Calendula, Sunflower Petals

Involved in energy production, muscle function, nerve function, and reducing inflammation.

Bohra and Visen, (2022)

Potassium

Hibiscus, Elderflower

Regulates fluid balance, supports muscle contractions, and helps maintain normal nerve function.

Maleš et al., (2022)

Zinc

Chive Blossoms, Nasturtiums

Important for immune function, wound healing, and DNA synthesis.

Socha et al., (2021)

Other Nutritional Benefits

Dietary Fiber

Dandelion, Violet, Hibiscus

Supports digestion, promotes healthy cholesterol levels, and helps regulate blood sugar.

Jakubczyk et al., (2022)

Fatty Acids

Sunflower Petals, Nasturtiums

Low in fatty acids but may contain small amounts of heart-healthy unsaturated fats.

Teixeira et al. (2023)

Calories

Marigold, Chamomile, Pansy

Adds flavor, color, and texture to dishes without contributing significant calories.

Janarny et al. (2021)

Protein

Dandelion, Nasturtiums, Pansy

Contains small amounts of protein (1–4%), contributing to muscle repair, tissue building, and overall growth.

Teixeira et al. (2023)

**Table 4.** Nutritional value of diverse edible flowers
Flower name	Nutritional value (g/100 g dry weight)	Reference
Aloe vera	–	8.6	16.4	4.2	13.8	56.8	89.5	Asif et al. (2023)
Saffron	–	5–7	12–13	5–8	4–5	–	10–12	Cardone et al. (2020)
Pansies	197	4.4	16.8	5.0	9.3	64. 5	87.2	Kozicka and Hallmann (2023).
Coral tree	–	10.73	12.53	1.69	13.69	56.64	87.6	Mulík and Ozuna (2020)
Agave	–	5.65	11.58	1.58	9.65	71.58	88.1	Mulík and Ozuna (2020)
Artichoke	47	1.13	3.27	0.15	5.4	10.51	84.94	Zayed et al. (2020)
Fuchsia (Dancing lady)	–	–	–	–	–	–	91.6	Benvenuti et al. (2016)
Mexican marigold	117	4.8	7.9	1.9	55.4	85.2	83.4	Singh et al. (2020)
French marigold	–	–	–	–	–	–	90.6	Chkhikvishvili et al. (2016)
Rugosa rose	465	4.2	4.3	1.3	–	90.2	71.6	Kim et al. (2022)
Tea Rose	–	–	2.6	–	–	–	89.9	Zhou et al. (2020)
Jasmine	35–40	1–2	1	0.5	1–2	6–8	90	Kalemba-Drożdż et al. (2019)
Chamomile	–	9.5	15.3	7.8	–	54.74	9.6	Ghasemi and Yousefbeyk (2024)
Lavender	100–120	10–15	3–5	0.5–1	20–30	20–30	15	Mavandi et al. (2021)
Hibiscus	35–40	10–15	2–3	1	6–8	7–8	85	Bahuguna et al. (2018)
Rosemary	–	11.78	14.3	–	14.26	45.84	–	Moliner et al. (2020)
Broccoli	84	15.4	52.3	0.2	28.0	10.0	92.6	Domínguez et al. (2010)
Cauliflower	75	13.9	8.0	2.9	21.7	43.6	93.4	Rezende et al. (2019)

Table 4. Nutritional value of diverse edible flowers

Flower name

Nutritional value (g/100 g dry weight)

Reference

Energy

Ash

Protein

Fat

Fiber

Carbohydrate

Moisture

Aloe vera

–

8.6

16.4

4.2

13.8

56.8

89.5

Asif et al. (2023)

Saffron

–

5–7

12–13

5–8

4–5

–

10–12

Cardone et al. (2020)

Pansies

197

4.4

16.8

5.0

9.3

64. 5

87.2

Kozicka and Hallmann (2023).

Coral tree

–

10.73

12.53

1.69

13.69

56.64

87.6

Mulík and Ozuna (2020)

Agave

–

5.65

11.58

1.58

9.65

71.58

88.1

Mulík and Ozuna (2020)

Artichoke

1.13

3.27

0.15

5.4

10.51

84.94

Zayed et al. (2020)

Fuchsia (Dancing lady)

–

91.6

Benvenuti et al. (2016)

Mexican marigold

117

4.8

7.9

1.9

55.4

85.2

83.4

Singh et al. (2020)

French marigold

–

90.6

Chkhikvishvili et al. (2016)

Rugosa rose

465

4.2

4.3

1.3

–

90.2

71.6

Kim et al. (2022)

Tea Rose

–

2.6

–

89.9

Zhou et al. (2020)

Jasmine

35–40

1–2

0.5

1–2

6–8

Kalemba-Drożdż et al. (2019)

Chamomile

–

9.5

15.3

7.8

–

54.74

9.6

Ghasemi and Yousefbeyk (2024)

Lavender

100–120

10–15

3–5

0.5–1

20–30

Mavandi et al. (2021)

Hibiscus

35–40

10–15

2–3

6–8

7–8

Bahuguna et al. (2018)

Rosemary

–

11.78

14.3

–

14.26

45.84

–

Moliner et al. (2020)

Broccoli

15.4

52.3

0.2

28.0

10.0

92.6

Domínguez et al. (2010)

Cauliflower

13.9

8.0

2.9

21.7

43.6

93.4

Rezende et al. (2019)

**Table 5.** Bioactive compounds and health benefits of various edible flowers
Flower Name	Scientific Name	Origin	Bioactive Compounds	Application in the Food Industry	Health Benefits	Clinical Trials	References
Aloe Vera	Aloe barbadensis miller	Asian countries	Proteins, amino acids, anthraquinones, carbohydrates, vitamins	Preserves food and packaging, increases shelf life	Maintains body weight, cholesterol, blood sugar levels, and supports skin health.	Tested on HaCaT and NHDF cells, showing reduced inflammation and improved skin health.	Razia et al. (2022), Asif et al. (2023), Shantamma et al. (2021)
Mango Flower	Mangifera indica	Southern Asia	Gallotannins, polyphenols, carotenoids	Used in pickles and culinary applications	Treats heat exhaustion, dehydration, high cholesterol, and diabetes.	Antioxidant activity and cholesterol reduction demonstrated in mouse trials.	He and MacGregor (2008)
Banana Flower	Musa sapientum L	Asian countries	Glutathione reductase, ascorbate peroxidase, catalase, phenols, flavonoids	Used in curry, soups, and pickles	Improves bowel movements, gut health, and alleviates diabetes, heart pain, asthma, and ulcers.	Tested on BPH-1 cell line, showing antiviral and antioxidant effects.	Soni and Saxena (2021)
Rose	Rosa spp.	Asia	Tannins, carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids	Jams, syrups, beverages, nutritional supplements	Reduces inflammation, supports tumor reduction, and combats age-related macular degeneration.	Clinical trials on human blood cells showed significant reduction in inflammation.	Wang (2024)
Lotus Flower	Nelumbo nucifera	Asia and Australia	Carotenoids, amino acids, organic acids, alkaloids	Salads, soups, desserts	Treats spleen and kidney disorders, supports heart health, and is used as a cardiotonic agent.	Skin-soothing, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties confirmed in human trials.	Ren et al. (2024)
Cape Jasmine	Gardenia jasminoides	Asia	Iridoids, crocin, gardenoside, genipin, geniposide	Tea products	Treats hypertension, hepatic disorders, inflammation, and jaundice.	Anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and anti-tumor properties confirmed in animal studies.	Yin and Liu (2018), Chen et al. (2020)
Moringa Flower	Moringa oleifera	Northwestern India	Flavonoids (kaempferitrin, rhamnetin, kaempferol), quercetin, alkaloids	Dietary supplements, health products	Treats urinary infections, rheumatism, common cold, and improves skin health.	Effective in treating urinary infections in clinical trials.	Maurya and Singh (2014)
Tuberose Flowers	Polianthes tuberosa L	Mexico	Heptacosene, pentacosene, methyl anthranilate, benzyl benzoate, methyl isoeugenol	Essential oil extraction	Relieves coughs, cramps, depression, convulsions, nervous afflictions, anger, anxiety, diarrhea, and stress.	Anticancer and antibacterial activities tested with silver nanoparticles on A431 cell lines.	Alghuthaymi et al. (2023), Fragoso-Jiménez et al. (2019)
Butterfly Pea	Clitoria ternatea	Tropical Asia	Phenols, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, glycosides, tannins, alkaloids	Beverages, desserts	Fights cancer, reduces inflammation, improves memory function.	Flavonoid-rich extracts inhibited cancer cell growth and reduced inflammation in mice.	Adhikary et al. (2018), Havananda and Luengwilai (2019)
Purple Coneflower	Echinacea purpurea	North America	Polyacetylenes, rosmarinic acid, phenolic acids, alkaloids	Tea products	Boosts immune system, reduces anxiety, inflammation, and helps fight colds.	Anti-inflammatory effects demonstrated in mouse macrophage cell line trials.	Chiou et al. (2017)
Paris Daisy	Chrysanthemum (Argyranthemum frutescens)	East Asia, Northeastern Europe	Flavonoids, phenolic acids	Enhances nutritional value in food products and nutraceuticals	Treats swelling, dizziness, headaches, cold, and type-2 diabetes.	Potential inhibition of cancer cell growth in human colon and lung carcinoma cell lines.	Pehlivan Karakas et al. (2017), Rop et al. (2012)
Sunflower	Helianthus annuus L	Asia and North America	Polyphenols, amino acids, fatty acids	Treats kidney diseases, asthma, rheumatism, pulmonary troubles	Supports digestion, brain function, bone health, and speeds up wound recovery.	Topical application for diaper rash demonstrated faster wound recovery and reduced inflammation.	Liang et al. (2013)
Hibiscus	Hibiscus rosa-sinensis	China, Japan, Pacific islands	Polysaccharides, flavonoids, anthocyanins	Natural food colorant for syrups, cocktails, and tea	Lowers blood pressure, supports heart health, and is rich in antioxidants.	Antioxidant effects and improved heart health confirmed in cell line trials.	Bahuguna et al. (2018)
Marigold	Tagetes erecta	Southern America	Carotenoids, zeaxanthin, lutein	Garnish for pasta, salads, soups, and natural food coloring	Heals wounds, reduces age-related macular degeneration, improves skin health, and has anti-inflammatory properties.	Anti-inflammatory effects confirmed in colon and lung cancer cell line trials.	Vallisuta et al. (2014), Siriamornpun et al. (2012)
Lavender	Lavandula spp.	Mediterranean region	Chlorophylls, anthocyanins, carotenoids	Natural flavoring for chewing gum, baked goods, candy, ice cream, beverages	Treats insect bites, skin sores, burns, digestive problems, headaches, and has anti-inflammatory effects.	Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties demonstrated in prostate cancer cell line trials.	Zhao et al. (2017)
Pansies	Viola × wittrockiana	South America	Rosmarinic acetate, linalool, linalyl acid	Used in cocktails, tea, and baked goods	Calming, helps relieve headaches, and improves digestion.	Positive results in relaxation and digestive aid observed in Caenorhabditis elegans model.	Kozicka and Hallmann (2023)
Chamomile	Matricaria recutita	Europe, Africa, Asia	Phenolic acids, quercetin, apigenin	Oils, extracts, flavored tea blends, baked goods	Improves digestive health, sleep quality, and reduces anxiety.	Anticancer and antioxidant effects demonstrated in rat trials.	Ghasemi and Yousefbeyk (2024)

Table 5. Bioactive compounds and health benefits of various edible flowers

Flower Name

Scientific Name

Origin

Bioactive Compounds

Application in the Food Industry

Health Benefits

Clinical Trials

References

Aloe Vera

Aloe barbadensis miller

Asian countries

Proteins, amino acids, anthraquinones, carbohydrates, vitamins

Preserves food and packaging, increases shelf life

Maintains body weight, cholesterol, blood sugar levels, and supports skin health.

Tested on HaCaT and NHDF cells, showing reduced inflammation and improved skin health.

Razia et al. (2022), Asif et al. (2023), Shantamma et al. (2021)

Mango Flower

Mangifera indica

Southern Asia

Gallotannins, polyphenols, carotenoids

Used in pickles and culinary applications

Treats heat exhaustion, dehydration, high cholesterol, and diabetes.

Antioxidant activity and cholesterol reduction demonstrated in mouse trials.

He and MacGregor (2008)

Banana Flower

Musa sapientum L

Asian countries

Glutathione reductase, ascorbate peroxidase, catalase, phenols, flavonoids

Used in curry, soups, and pickles

Improves bowel movements, gut health, and alleviates diabetes, heart pain, asthma, and ulcers.

Tested on BPH-1 cell line, showing antiviral and antioxidant effects.

Soni and Saxena (2021)

Rose

Rosa spp.

Asia

Tannins, carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids

Jams, syrups, beverages, nutritional supplements

Reduces inflammation, supports tumor reduction, and combats age-related macular degeneration.

Clinical trials on human blood cells showed significant reduction in inflammation.

Wang (2024)

Lotus Flower

Nelumbo nucifera

Asia and Australia

Carotenoids, amino acids, organic acids, alkaloids

Salads, soups, desserts

Treats spleen and kidney disorders, supports heart health, and is used as a cardiotonic agent.

Skin-soothing, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties confirmed in human trials.

Ren et al. (2024)

Cape Jasmine

Gardenia jasminoides

Asia

Iridoids, crocin, gardenoside, genipin, geniposide

Tea products

Treats hypertension, hepatic disorders, inflammation, and jaundice.

Anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, and anti-tumor properties confirmed in animal studies.

Yin and Liu (2018), Chen et al. (2020)

Moringa Flower

Moringa oleifera

Northwestern India

Flavonoids (kaempferitrin, rhamnetin, kaempferol), quercetin, alkaloids

Dietary supplements, health products

Treats urinary infections, rheumatism, common cold, and improves skin health.

Effective in treating urinary infections in clinical trials.

Maurya and Singh (2014)

Tuberose Flowers

Polianthes tuberosa L

Mexico

Heptacosene, pentacosene, methyl anthranilate, benzyl benzoate, methyl isoeugenol

Essential oil extraction

Relieves coughs, cramps, depression, convulsions, nervous afflictions, anger, anxiety, diarrhea, and stress.

Anticancer and antibacterial activities tested with silver nanoparticles on A431 cell lines.

Alghuthaymi et al. (2023), Fragoso-Jiménez et al. (2019)

Butterfly Pea

Clitoria ternatea

Tropical Asia

Phenols, flavonoids, saponins, steroids, glycosides, tannins, alkaloids

Beverages, desserts

Fights cancer, reduces inflammation, improves memory function.

Flavonoid-rich extracts inhibited cancer cell growth and reduced inflammation in mice.

Adhikary et al. (2018), Havananda and Luengwilai (2019)

Purple Coneflower

Echinacea purpurea

North America

Polyacetylenes, rosmarinic acid, phenolic acids, alkaloids

Tea products

Boosts immune system, reduces anxiety, inflammation, and helps fight colds.

Anti-inflammatory effects demonstrated in mouse macrophage cell line trials.

Chiou et al. (2017)

Paris Daisy

Chrysanthemum (Argyranthemum frutescens)

East Asia, Northeastern Europe

Flavonoids, phenolic acids

Enhances nutritional value in food products and nutraceuticals

Treats swelling, dizziness, headaches, cold, and type-2 diabetes.

Potential inhibition of cancer cell growth in human colon and lung carcinoma cell lines.

Pehlivan Karakas et al. (2017), Rop et al. (2012)

Sunflower

Helianthus annuus L

Asia and North America

Polyphenols, amino acids, fatty acids

Treats kidney diseases, asthma, rheumatism, pulmonary troubles

Supports digestion, brain function, bone health, and speeds up wound recovery.

Topical application for diaper rash demonstrated faster wound recovery and reduced inflammation.

Liang et al. (2013)

Hibiscus

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

China, Japan, Pacific islands

Polysaccharides, flavonoids, anthocyanins

Natural food colorant for syrups, cocktails, and tea

Lowers blood pressure, supports heart health, and is rich in antioxidants.

Antioxidant effects and improved heart health confirmed in cell line trials.

Bahuguna et al. (2018)

Marigold

Tagetes erecta

Southern America

Carotenoids, zeaxanthin, lutein

Garnish for pasta, salads, soups, and natural food coloring

Heals wounds, reduces age-related macular degeneration, improves skin health, and has anti-inflammatory properties.

Anti-inflammatory effects confirmed in colon and lung cancer cell line trials.

Vallisuta et al. (2014), Siriamornpun et al. (2012)

Lavender

Lavandula spp.

Mediterranean region

Chlorophylls, anthocyanins, carotenoids

Natural flavoring for chewing gum, baked goods, candy, ice cream, beverages

Treats insect bites, skin sores, burns, digestive problems, headaches, and has anti-inflammatory effects.

Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties demonstrated in prostate cancer cell line trials.

Zhao et al. (2017)

Pansies

Viola × wittrockiana

South America

Rosmarinic acetate, linalool, linalyl acid

Used in cocktails, tea, and baked goods

Calming, helps relieve headaches, and improves digestion.

Positive results in relaxation and digestive aid observed in Caenorhabditis elegans model.

Kozicka and Hallmann (2023)

Chamomile

Matricaria recutita

Europe, Africa, Asia

Phenolic acids, quercetin, apigenin

Oils, extracts, flavored tea blends, baked goods

Improves digestive health, sleep quality, and reduces anxiety.

Anticancer and antioxidant effects demonstrated in rat trials.

Ghasemi and Yousefbeyk (2024)

**Table 6.** Analysis of different preservation techniques of edible flowers with their respective uses.
Flower Name	Preservation Technologies	Processing Conditions & Storage Conditions	Uses of Edible Flowers in the Food Industry	References
Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus)	Ionizing and Irradiation	Room temperature, 60°C (0.5, 0.8, and 1 kGy)	Used in meals, drinks, and salads	Koike et al. (2011)
Heartsease (Viola tricolor)	Low Temperature	Polyethylene bags, stored at −2.5, 0, 2.5, 5, 10, 20°C	Colorant in drinks, salads, soups	González-Barrio et al. (2018)
Rose (Rose spp.)	Drying Techniques	Vacuum drying (27, 37, and 47°C, 0.004–0.007 kPa), freezing at −35°C for 2 and 4 h	Rose sugar, syrup, beverages, soups, and teas	Kim et al. (2022)
Pansies (Viola × wittrockiana)	HHP (High Hydrostatic Pressure)	75 MPa, for 5 and 10 min	Used in the tea industry	Kozicka and Hallmann (2023)
Marigold (Tagetes erecta)	Drying	Freeze Drying (FD) for 48 hours, Hot Air Drying (HA) at 60°C for 4 hours, and FIRHA Drying	Used in stews, soups, and salads	Siriamornpun et al. (2012)
Purple Coneflower (Echinacea purpurea)	Drying Techniques	Freeze drying at −55°C for 4 days, Vacuum Microwave Drying (1 kW) for 47 minutes, air drying at 70°C	Used in salads	Burlou-Nagy et al., (2022)
Borage (Borago officinalis)	Low Temperature & HHP	Polyethylene bags, −2.5 to 20°C, 75, 150, and 450 MPa, 5 and 10 min	Used in soups and beverages	Burlou-Nagy et al., (2022)
Artichoke (Cynara scolymus)	Low Temperature	Stored at 0–10°C for 14 days	Regulates blood pressure, treats fatty liver	Zayed et al. (2020)
Blue Pea Flower (Clitoria ternatea)	Drying	Dried for 45 days	Colorant in yogurts, functional beverages, drink powders	Harmayani et al. (2019)
Cornflower (Centaurea cyanus)	HHP (High Hydrostatic Pressure)	75, 100, 200, and 300 MPa, for 5 min	Used in infusions, as a garnish, and as a colorant	Fernandes et al. (2018)
Paris Daisy (Chrysanthemum spp.)	Drying	Flowers placed in water for 16 hours at room temperature, stored for 3 days	Applied in herbal teas, toppings for snacks, and creams	Fukai et al. (2018)
Lavender (Lavandula)	Drying	Dried for 0 h, 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h after harvest	Used in beverages, chewing gum, baked goods, and ice cream	Rathore and Kumar (2022)

Table 6. Analysis of different preservation techniques of edible flowers with their respective uses.

Flower Name

Preservation Technologies

Processing Conditions & Storage Conditions

Uses of Edible Flowers in the Food Industry

References

Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus)

Ionizing and Irradiation

Room temperature, 60°C (0.5, 0.8, and 1 kGy)

Used in meals, drinks, and salads

Koike et al. (2011)

Heartsease (Viola tricolor)

Low Temperature

Polyethylene bags, stored at −2.5, 0, 2.5, 5, 10, 20°C

Colorant in drinks, salads, soups

González-Barrio et al. (2018)

Rose (Rose spp.)

Drying Techniques

Vacuum drying (27, 37, and 47°C, 0.004–0.007 kPa), freezing at −35°C for 2 and 4 h

Rose sugar, syrup, beverages, soups, and teas

Kim et al. (2022)

Pansies (Viola × wittrockiana)

HHP (High Hydrostatic Pressure)

75 MPa, for 5 and 10 min

Used in the tea industry

Kozicka and Hallmann (2023)

Marigold (Tagetes erecta)

Drying

Freeze Drying (FD) for 48 hours, Hot Air Drying (HA) at 60°C for 4 hours, and FIRHA Drying

Used in stews, soups, and salads

Siriamornpun et al. (2012)

Purple Coneflower (Echinacea purpurea)

Drying Techniques

Freeze drying at −55°C for 4 days, Vacuum Microwave Drying (1 kW) for 47 minutes, air drying at 70°C

Used in salads

Burlou-Nagy et al., (2022)

Borage (Borago officinalis)

Low Temperature & HHP

Polyethylene bags, −2.5 to 20°C, 75, 150, and 450 MPa, 5 and 10 min

Used in soups and beverages

Burlou-Nagy et al., (2022)

Artichoke (Cynara scolymus)

Low Temperature

Stored at 0–10°C for 14 days

Regulates blood pressure, treats fatty liver

Zayed et al. (2020)

Blue Pea Flower (Clitoria ternatea)

Drying

Dried for 45 days

Colorant in yogurts, functional beverages, drink powders

Harmayani et al. (2019)

Cornflower (Centaurea cyanus)

HHP (High Hydrostatic Pressure)

75, 100, 200, and 300 MPa, for 5 min

Used in infusions, as a garnish, and as a colorant

Fernandes et al. (2018)

Paris Daisy (Chrysanthemum spp.)

Drying

Flowers placed in water for 16 hours at room temperature, stored for 3 days

Applied in herbal teas, toppings for snacks, and creams

Fukai et al. (2018)

Lavender (Lavandula)

Drying

Dried for 0 h, 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h after harvest

Used in beverages, chewing gum, baked goods, and ice cream

Rathore and Kumar (2022)