J Food Bioact

Journal of Food Bioactives, ISSN 2637-8752 print, 2637-8779 online

Journal website www.isnff-jfb.com

Original Research

Volume 27, September 2024, pages 70-78

Impact of light roasted coffee enriched with chlorogenic acid on lipid and glycaemic indices in healthy obese adults. A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial

**Table 1.** Effect of experimental and placebo samples on various anthropometric parameters
Parameters	W0	W4	W8	W12	Follow-up
Value are expressed as mean ± SD (Standard deviation). Data bearing different superscript letters within the same row are significantly different (p < 0.05). p < 0.05, *p < 0.01: Experimental sample Vs placebo on same week comparison. BW: Body weight; BMI: Body Mass Index; WC: Waist Circumference: RC: Rump Circumference; MAC: Mid-arm Circumference; TSF: Triceps skin fold.
BW (kg)
Experiment	90.68 ± 20.06a*	89.26 ± 19.59a*	88.72 ± 19.67ab	88.16 ± 19.36ab	87.29 ± 18.74b
Placebo	87.00 ± 10.43a	86.24 ± 10.42a	86.12 ± 10.34a	86.07 ± 10.61a	86.14 ± 10.62a
BMI (kg/m2)
Experiment	31.26 ± 4.39a*	30.71 ± 4.32b	30.56 ± 4.39b	30.04 ± 4.29c	30.16 ± 4.06bc
Placebo	29.19 ± 2.29a	29.91 ± 2.25a	29.87 ± 2.27a	29.84 ± 2.28a	30.07 ± 2.36a
Body fat (%)
Experiment	36.72 ± 5.10a*	35.54 ± 5.66ab*	34.50 ± 5.40b*	32.72 ± 5.49c*	33.30 ± 5.39bc*
Placebo	31.86 ± 5.50a	31.13 ± 6.18a	31.04 ± 6.03a	31.01 ± 5.48a	31.07 ± 5.53a
WC (cm)
Experiment	99.45 ± 13.39a*	99.08 ± 13.43a*	99.03 ± 12.59a*	96.15 ± 13.04b*	96.15 ± 13.04b*
Placebo	91.76 ± 7.60a	92.43 ± 7.29a	92.12 ± 7.43a	91.05 ± 7.48a	91.05 ± 7.48a
RC (cm)
Experiment	109.15 ± 7.23a*	109.00 ± 7.30a*	109.60 ± 7.87a*	106.30 ± 8.06b*	106.30 ± 8.06b
Placebo	103.03 ± 4.02a	103.1 ± 3.62a	102.95 ± 3.80a	101.91 ± 3.23a	102.21 ± 3.23a
MAC (cm)
Experiment	33.37 ± 3.99a*	33.32 ± 3.07a*	33.08 ± 2.94a*	32.73 ± 4.06a*	32.93 ± 4.06a*
Placebo	29.69 ± 2.48a	29.97 ± 2.08a	29.69 ± 1.98a	29.43 ± 2.27a	29.33 ± 2.27a
TSF(cm)
Experiment	23.63 ± 8.18a*	22.93 ± 8.33a*	22.74 ± 8.13a*	22.63 ± 7.49a*	22.63 ± 7.49a*
Placebo	19.75 ± 5.99a	19.28 ± 5.87a	19.58 ± 6.02a	18.90 ± 6.26a	18.90 ± 6.26a

Table 1. Effect of experimental and placebo samples on various anthropometric parameters

Parameters

W12

Follow-up

Value are expressed as mean ± SD (Standard deviation). Data bearing different superscript letters within the same row are significantly different (p < 0.05). *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01: Experimental sample Vs placebo on same week comparison. BW: Body weight; BMI: Body Mass Index; WC: Waist Circumference: RC: Rump Circumference; MAC: Mid-arm Circumference; TSF: Triceps skin fold.

BW (kg)

Experiment

90.68 ± 20.06a*

89.26 ± 19.59a*

88.72 ± 19.67ab

88.16 ± 19.36ab

87.29 ± 18.74b

Placebo

87.00 ± 10.43a

86.24 ± 10.42a

86.12 ± 10.34a

86.07 ± 10.61a

86.14 ± 10.62a

BMI (kg/m2)

Experiment

31.26 ± 4.39a*

30.71 ± 4.32b

30.56 ± 4.39b

30.04 ± 4.29c

30.16 ± 4.06bc

Placebo

29.19 ± 2.29a

29.91 ± 2.25a

29.87 ± 2.27a

29.84 ± 2.28a

30.07 ± 2.36a

Body fat (%)

Experiment

36.72 ± 5.10a*

35.54 ± 5.66ab*

34.50 ± 5.40b*

32.72 ± 5.49c*

33.30 ± 5.39bc*

Placebo

31.86 ± 5.50a

31.13 ± 6.18a

31.04 ± 6.03a

31.01 ± 5.48a

31.07 ± 5.53a

WC (cm)

Experiment

99.45 ± 13.39a*

99.08 ± 13.43a*

99.03 ± 12.59a*

96.15 ± 13.04b*

Placebo

91.76 ± 7.60a

92.43 ± 7.29a

92.12 ± 7.43a

91.05 ± 7.48a

RC (cm)

Experiment

109.15 ± 7.23a*

109.00 ± 7.30a*

109.60 ± 7.87a*

106.30 ± 8.06b*

106.30 ± 8.06b

Placebo

103.03 ± 4.02a

103.1 ± 3.62a

102.95 ± 3.80a

101.91 ± 3.23a

102.21 ± 3.23a

MAC (cm)

Experiment

33.37 ± 3.99a*

33.32 ± 3.07a*

33.08 ± 2.94a*

32.73 ± 4.06a*

32.93 ± 4.06a*

Placebo

29.69 ± 2.48a

29.97 ± 2.08a

29.69 ± 1.98a

29.43 ± 2.27a

29.33 ± 2.27a

TSF(cm)

Experiment

23.63 ± 8.18a*

22.93 ± 8.33a*

22.74 ± 8.13a*

22.63 ± 7.49a*

Placebo

19.75 ± 5.99a

19.28 ± 5.87a

19.58 ± 6.02a

18.90 ± 6.26a

**Table 2.** Effect of experimental and placebo samples on various lipid profile
Parameters	W0	W4	W8	W12	Follow-up
Value are expressed as mean ± SD (Standard deviation). Data bearing different superscript letters within the same row are significantly different (p < 0.05). p < 0.05, *p < 0.01: Experimental sample Vs placebo on same week comparison. TC: Total Cholesterol; TG: Triacylglycerol; HDL-c: High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol; LDL-c: Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol;
TC (mg/dL)
Experiment	208.05 ± 34.67a*	200.50 ± 32.66b*	197.30 ± 31.88c**	201.30 ± 35.17b*	199.50 ± 31.94bc*
Placebo	213.05 ± 38.54a	209.40 ± 31.69a	207.70 ± 36.54a	205.30 ± 36.58b	205.15 ± 35.71b
TG (mg/dL)
Experiment	140.95 ± 26.99a*	134.30 ± 23.86ab*	129.85 ± 30.40b**	127.05 ± 28.06b**	130.65 ± 24.80ab*
Placebo	150.60 ± 34.42a	147.55 ± 29.50a	146.70 ± 32.23a	150.20 ± 29.05a	145.15 ± 24.23a
HDL-C (mg/dL)
Experiment	44.32 ± 10.25a*	45.92 ± 9.44ab	46.64 ± 9.02b	47.05 ± 7.86c	46.87 ± 8.31b
Placebo	47.07 ± 8.75a	47.40 ± 10.10a	47.90 ± 8.87a	47.97 ± 8.74a	47.45 ± 8.58a
LDL-C (mg/dL)
Experiment	133.27 ± 27.05a*	126.57 ± 27.32ab	120.20 ± 26.31b	117.96 ± 28.52b	124.10 ± 26.34ab
Placebo	128.06 ± 26.90a	125.78 ± 26.70a	121.78 ± 28.11a	119.89 ± 27.61a	122.36 ± 26.69a

Table 2. Effect of experimental and placebo samples on various lipid profile

Parameters

W12

Follow-up

Value are expressed as mean ± SD (Standard deviation). Data bearing different superscript letters within the same row are significantly different (p < 0.05). *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01: Experimental sample Vs placebo on same week comparison. TC: Total Cholesterol; TG: Triacylglycerol; HDL-c: High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol; LDL-c: Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol;

TC (mg/dL)

Experiment

208.05 ± 34.67a*

200.50 ± 32.66b*

197.30 ± 31.88c**

201.30 ± 35.17b*

199.50 ± 31.94bc*

Placebo

213.05 ± 38.54a

209.40 ± 31.69a

207.70 ± 36.54a

205.30 ± 36.58b

205.15 ± 35.71b

TG (mg/dL)

Experiment

140.95 ± 26.99a*

134.30 ± 23.86ab*

129.85 ± 30.40b**

127.05 ± 28.06b**

130.65 ± 24.80ab*

Placebo

150.60 ± 34.42a

147.55 ± 29.50a

146.70 ± 32.23a

150.20 ± 29.05a

145.15 ± 24.23a

HDL-C (mg/dL)

Experiment

44.32 ± 10.25a*

45.92 ± 9.44ab

46.64 ± 9.02b

47.05 ± 7.86c

46.87 ± 8.31b

Placebo

47.07 ± 8.75a

47.40 ± 10.10a

47.90 ± 8.87a

47.97 ± 8.74a

47.45 ± 8.58a

LDL-C (mg/dL)

Experiment

133.27 ± 27.05a*

126.57 ± 27.32ab

120.20 ± 26.31b

117.96 ± 28.52b

124.10 ± 26.34ab

Placebo

128.06 ± 26.90a

125.78 ± 26.70a

121.78 ± 28.11a

119.89 ± 27.61a

122.36 ± 26.69a

**Table 3.** Effect of experimental and placebo samples on various lipid metabolizing related signalling molecules
Parameters	W0	W12
Value are expressed as mean ± SD (Standard deviation). Data bearing different superscript letters within the same row are significantly different (p < 0.05). p < 0.05, *p < 0.01: Experimental sample Vs placebo on same week comparison. AMPK-α: Adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase-alpha; PPAR-α: Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-alpha; PPAR-γ: Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma; LXR-α: Liver X receptor-alpha.
AMPK-α (pg/mL)
Experiment	1,398.39 ± 106.57a	2,077.15 ± 156.65b**
Placebo	1,403.19 ± 119.43a	1,513.27 ± 120.07a
Adiponectin (µg/mL)
Experiment	9.48 ± 3.92a	18.43 ± 4.88b**
Placebo	12.49 ± 3.40a	14.10 ± 6.41a
PPAR-α (ng/mL)
Experiment	0.040± 0.002a	0.049 ± 0.001b*
Placebo	0.042 ± 0.001a	0.045 ± 0.001a
PPAR-γ (ng/mL)
Experiment	0.555± 0.14a	0.286 ± 0.10b**
Placebo	0.485 ± 0.305a	0.522 ± 0.403a
Leptin (pg/mL)
Experiment	2,672.97±12.53a	2,009.18 ± 11.24b**
Placebo	2,401.36 ± 17.97a	2,222.86 ± 16.48a
LXR-α (ng/mL)
Experiment	0.028 ± 0.012a	0.011 ± 0.009b**
Placebo	0.027 ± 0.011a	0.022 ± 0.008a

Table 3. Effect of experimental and placebo samples on various lipid metabolizing related signalling molecules

Parameters

W12

Value are expressed as mean ± SD (Standard deviation). Data bearing different superscript letters within the same row are significantly different (p < 0.05). *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01: Experimental sample Vs placebo on same week comparison. AMPK-α: Adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase-alpha; PPAR-α: Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-alpha; PPAR-γ: Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma; LXR-α: Liver X receptor-alpha.

AMPK-α (pg/mL)

Experiment

1,398.39 ± 106.57a

2,077.15 ± 156.65b**

Placebo

1,403.19 ± 119.43a

1,513.27 ± 120.07a

Adiponectin (µg/mL)

Experiment

9.48 ± 3.92a

18.43 ± 4.88b**

Placebo

12.49 ± 3.40a

14.10 ± 6.41a

PPAR-α (ng/mL)

Experiment

0.040± 0.002a

0.049 ± 0.001b*

Placebo

0.042 ± 0.001a

0.045 ± 0.001a

PPAR-γ (ng/mL)

Experiment

0.555± 0.14a

0.286 ± 0.10b**

Placebo

0.485 ± 0.305a

0.522 ± 0.403a

Leptin (pg/mL)

Experiment

2,672.97±12.53a

2,009.18 ± 11.24b**

Placebo

2,401.36 ± 17.97a

2,222.86 ± 16.48a

LXR-α (ng/mL)

Experiment

0.028 ± 0.012a

0.011 ± 0.009b**

Placebo

0.027 ± 0.011a

0.022 ± 0.008a

**Table 4.** Effect of experimental and placebo samples on various glycaemic and oxidative indices
Parameters	W0	W4	W8	W12	Follow-up
Value are expressed as mean ± SD (Standard deviation). Data bearing different superscript letters within the same row are significantly different (p < 0.05). p < 0.05, *p < 0.01: Experimental sample Vs placebo on same week comparison. FBG: Fasting blood glucose; HOMA-IR: Homeostasis model assessment of Insulin resistance; HbA1c: Glycosylated hemoglobin; TBARS: Thiobarbituric acid reactive substance.
FBG (mg/dL)
Experiment	102.20 ± 15.37a	104.05 ± 12.50a	104.35 ± 14.63a	105.95 ± 15.59a	105.35 ± 14.73a
Placebo	100.80 ± 17.74a	101.40 ± 15.42a	99.95 ± 10.57a	99.75 ± 11.48a	99.60 ± 11.78a
Insulin (uIU/mL)
Experiment	20.24 ± 5.27a	19.09 ± 4.29a	18.76 ± 4.60a	18.43 ± 5.78a	18.29 ± 4.66a
Placebo	20.17 ± 5.51a	19.68 ±4.95a	18.91 ± 3.09a	18.51 ± 3.14a	18.86 ± 4.29a
HOMA-IR
Experiment	5.03 ± 1.67a	4.93 ± 1.83a	4.29 ± 1.33a	4.17 ± 1.62a	4.58 ± 1.34a
Placebo	5.10 ± 1.06a	4.94 ± 1.06a	4.84 ± 2.76a	4.40 ± 1.08a	4.53 ± 2.03a
HbA1C (%)
Experiment	5.89 ± 0.91a	5.94 ± 0.92a	5.91 ± 0.98a	5.93 ± 1.00a	5.94 ± 0.99a
Placebo	5.94 ± 1.47a	5.93 ± 1.18a	5.81 ± 0.97a	5.80 ± 0.85a	5.82 ± 0.90a
TBARS (µM)
Experiment	1.71 ± 0.21a	1.32 ± 0.20b*	1.15 ± 0.18c**	1.13 ± 0.17c**	1.21 ± 0.19bc**
Placebo	1.70 ± 0.27a	1.63 ± 0.31a	1.55 ± 0.17a	1.48 ± 0.15b	1.48 ± 0.20b

Table 4. Effect of experimental and placebo samples on various glycaemic and oxidative indices

Parameters

W12

Follow-up

Value are expressed as mean ± SD (Standard deviation). Data bearing different superscript letters within the same row are significantly different (p < 0.05). *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01: Experimental sample Vs placebo on same week comparison. FBG: Fasting blood glucose; HOMA-IR: Homeostasis model assessment of Insulin resistance; HbA1c: Glycosylated hemoglobin; TBARS: Thiobarbituric acid reactive substance.

FBG (mg/dL)

Experiment

102.20 ± 15.37a

104.05 ± 12.50a

104.35 ± 14.63a

105.95 ± 15.59a

105.35 ± 14.73a

Placebo

100.80 ± 17.74a

101.40 ± 15.42a

99.95 ± 10.57a

99.75 ± 11.48a

99.60 ± 11.78a

Insulin (uIU/mL)

Experiment

20.24 ± 5.27a

19.09 ± 4.29a

18.76 ± 4.60a

18.43 ± 5.78a

18.29 ± 4.66a

Placebo

20.17 ± 5.51a

19.68 ±4.95a

18.91 ± 3.09a

18.51 ± 3.14a

18.86 ± 4.29a

HOMA-IR

Experiment

5.03 ± 1.67a

4.93 ± 1.83a

4.29 ± 1.33a

4.17 ± 1.62a

4.58 ± 1.34a

Placebo

5.10 ± 1.06a

4.94 ± 1.06a

4.84 ± 2.76a

4.40 ± 1.08a

4.53 ± 2.03a

HbA1C (%)

Experiment

5.89 ± 0.91a

5.94 ± 0.92a

5.91 ± 0.98a

5.93 ± 1.00a

5.94 ± 0.99a

Placebo

5.94 ± 1.47a

5.93 ± 1.18a

5.81 ± 0.97a

5.80 ± 0.85a

5.82 ± 0.90a

TBARS (µM)

Experiment

1.71 ± 0.21a

1.32 ± 0.20b*

1.15 ± 0.18c**

1.13 ± 0.17c**

1.21 ± 0.19bc**

Placebo

1.70 ± 0.27a

1.63 ± 0.31a

1.55 ± 0.17a

1.48 ± 0.15b

1.48 ± 0.20b

**Table 5.** Effect of experimental and placebo samples on various hepatic and renal markers
Parameters	W0	W4	W8	W12	Follow-up
Value are expressed as mean ± SD (Standard deviation). Data bearing different superscript letters within the same row are significantly different (p < 0.05). p < 0.05, *p < 0.01: Experimental sample Vs placebo on same week comparison. Glutamic pyruvic acid transaminase (GPT); Glutamic oxaloacetic acid transaminase (GPT); blood urea nitrogen (BUN).
GOT (IU/L)
Experiment	26.45 ± 8.04a	26.90 ± 9.02a	25.40 ± 10.80a	25.01 ± 9.56a	24.80 ± 10.04a
Placebo	24.95 ± 7.93a	23.90 ± 5.25a	24.90 ± 10.79a	25.20 ± 12.14a	25.05 ± 11.17a
GPT (IU/L)
Experiment	40.05 ± 10.86a*	39.30 ± 10.89a*	38.55 ± 12.25a	37.45 ± 10.26a	38.20 ± 11.35a
Placebo	34.10 ± 11.06a	33.25 ± 10.58a	33.00 ± 10.63a	35.65 ± 12.35a	34.50 ± 11.09a
BUN (mg/dL)
Experiment	14.80 ± 3.76a	14.15 ± 2.96a	13.70 ± 3.97a	13.45 ± 3.64a	14.05 ± 2.61a
Placebo	13.35 ± 3.72a	13.25 ± 3.61a	13.10 ± 3.48a	13.50 ± 3.22a	13.50 ± 3.63a
Creatinine (mg/dL)
Experiment	0.87 ± 0.22a	0.90 ± 0.24a	0.88 ± 0.25a	0.89 ± 0.24a	0.90 ± 0.24a
Placebo	0.81 ± 0.21a	0.82 ± 0.21a	0.83 ± 0.24a	0.82 ± 0.21a	0.83 ± 0.22a

Table 5. Effect of experimental and placebo samples on various hepatic and renal markers

Parameters

W12

Follow-up

Value are expressed as mean ± SD (Standard deviation). Data bearing different superscript letters within the same row are significantly different (p < 0.05). *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01: Experimental sample Vs placebo on same week comparison. Glutamic pyruvic acid transaminase (GPT); Glutamic oxaloacetic acid transaminase (GPT); blood urea nitrogen (BUN).

GOT (IU/L)

Experiment

26.45 ± 8.04a

26.90 ± 9.02a

25.40 ± 10.80a

25.01 ± 9.56a

24.80 ± 10.04a

Placebo

24.95 ± 7.93a

23.90 ± 5.25a

24.90 ± 10.79a

25.20 ± 12.14a

25.05 ± 11.17a

GPT (IU/L)

Experiment

40.05 ± 10.86a*

39.30 ± 10.89a*

38.55 ± 12.25a

37.45 ± 10.26a

38.20 ± 11.35a

Placebo

34.10 ± 11.06a

33.25 ± 10.58a

33.00 ± 10.63a

35.65 ± 12.35a

34.50 ± 11.09a

BUN (mg/dL)

Experiment

14.80 ± 3.76a

14.15 ± 2.96a

13.70 ± 3.97a

13.45 ± 3.64a

14.05 ± 2.61a

Placebo

13.35 ± 3.72a

13.25 ± 3.61a

13.10 ± 3.48a

13.50 ± 3.22a

13.50 ± 3.63a

Creatinine (mg/dL)

Experiment

0.87 ± 0.22a

0.90 ± 0.24a

0.88 ± 0.25a

0.89 ± 0.24a

0.90 ± 0.24a

Placebo

0.81 ± 0.21a

0.82 ± 0.21a

0.83 ± 0.24a

0.82 ± 0.21a

0.83 ± 0.22a