Journal of Food Bioactives, ISSN 2637-8752 print, 2637-8779 online
Journal website www.isnff-jfb.com

Original Research

Volume 22, June 2023, pages 53-65

Effects of solid-state fermentation on the phytochemical composition and antioxidant activities of oriental mustard (Brassica juncea) and yellow mustard (Sinapis alba) bran

Figures

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Total phenolic contents (a) and antioxidant activities FRAP (b), DPPH (c), and ORAC (d) of oriental mustard bran extracts during solid-state fermentation by various microbes.
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Total phenolic contents (a) and antioxidant activities FRAP (b), DPPH (c), and ORAC (d) of yellow mustard bran extracts during solid-state fermentation by various microbes.
Figure 3.
Figure 3. Extracted ion chromatograms (XIC) of sinapine, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, syringic acid and sinapic acid in oriental mustard bran after 0, 24, 48 and 72 h of fermentation by R. oryzae. Individual compounds were identified and quantified using analytical standards.
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Extracted ion chromatograms (XIC) of sinapine, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, syringic acid and sinapic acid in yellow mustard bran after 0, 24, 48 and 72 h of fermentation by R. oryzae. Individual compounds were identified and quantified using analytical standards.
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Correlation heatmaps between the total phenolic contents (TPC), antioxidant activities (FRAP, DPPH, ORAC), and glucosinolate and phenolic contents of (a) oriental mustard bran and (b) yellow mustard bran fermented by A. awamori, R. oligosporus and R. oryzae. Strong positive correlations are denoted by a deep red color. Strong negative correlations are denoted by a deep blue color. FERA: trans-ferulic acid, GBR: glucobrassicin, GNS: gluconasturtiin, KAEM: kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, PA: protocatechuic acid, PBA: p-hydroxybenzoic acid, SALA: salicylic acid, SBIN: sinalbin, SGRIN: sinigrin, SIN: sinapine, SINA: sinapic acid, SYR: syringaldehyde, SYRA: syringic acid.
Figure 6.
Figure 6. Principal component analysis biplots of glucosinolate and phenolic contents in (a) oriental mustard bran and (b) yellow mustard bran during SSF by A. awamori (AA), R. oligosporus (ROL) and R. oryzae (ROR) over a 3-day period. Data points are labelled based on fermentation duration: 0, 24, 48 or 72 h. FERA: trans-ferulic acid, GBR: glucobrassicin, GNS: gluconasturtiin, KAEM: kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, PA: protocatechuic acid, PBA: p-hydroxybenzoic acid, SALA: salicylic acid, SBIN: sinalbin, SGRIN: sinigrin, SIN: sinapine, SINA: sinapic acid, SYR: syringaldehyde, SYRA: syringic acid.

Tables

Table 1. Quantification of main glucosinolates and phenolic compounds in oriental mustard bran fermented by A. awamori, R. oligosporus and R. oryzae
 
Compound[M-H]− m/zRT (min)Contents (µg/g)
0 h24 h48 h72 h
*Positive ionization mode was used ([M+H]+). n.d., not detected; RT, retention time. Results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3) on a dry weight basis. Means followed by a common letter within the same row are not significantly different by the Tukey’s HSD test at the 5% level of significance.
A. awamori
  Sinigrin358.033.4211,821 ± 924c11,212 ± 891bc9,963 ± 308ab8,855 ± 281a
  Sinalbin424.044.8163.68 ± 4.26a58.55 ± 3.67a63.36 ± 7.08a62.77 ± 3.47a
  Glucobrassicin447.059.8512.23 ± 0.65b9.50 ± 0.60a12.06 ± 1.05b11.72 ± 0.05b
  Gluconasturtiin422.0612.4826.98 ± 2.89b24.00 ± 1.39ab23.18 ± 2.35ab19.26 ± 0.94a
  Sinapine*310.162.793,483 ± 808b1,298 ± 618a319.8 ± 146.5a81.54 ± 62.39a
  Syringaldehyde*183.072.992.53 ± 0.09ab5.01 ± 0.95b2.62 ± 2.32ab1.29 ± 1.04a
  Protocatechuic acid153.016.92n.d.0.24 ± 0.01a0.89 ± 0.42b0.47 ± 0.05ab
  p-Hydroxybenzoic acid137.029.701.71 ± 0.12a6.78 ± 0.55c3.65 ± 0.13b1.44 ± 0.38a
  Syringic acid197.0514.910.46 ± 0.20a1.54 ± 0.56a10.16 ± 6.42a6.71 ± 5.27a
  trans-Ferulic acid193.0519.87n.d.0.07 ± 0.04a0.30 ± 0.12b0.17 ± 0.05ab
  Salicylic acid137.0220.351.51 ± 0.36b1.32 ± 0.19b0.62 ± 0.03a0.17 ± 0.07a
  Sinapic acid223.0621.062.02 ± 0.13a2.05 ± 0.03a4.23 ± 3.18a3.04 ± 1.26a
  Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside447.0927.200.16 ± 0.02a1.49 ± 0.07b1.33 ± 0.51b0.62 ± 0.13a
R. oligosporus
  Sinigrin358.033.4214,314 ± 385c14,306 ± 61c7,393 ± 710b4,587 ± 650a
  Sinalbin424.044.81107.6 ± 7.2c95.93 ± 8.68c58.65 ± 8.15b32.05 ± 3.12a
  Glucobrassicin447.059.8519.2 ± 0.30c21.18 ± 0.88d15.08 ± 0.75b9.20 ± 0.27a
  Gluconasturtiin422.0612.4842.22 ± 0.64c43.03 ± 1.12c26.45 ± 2.71b12.83 ± 3.49a
  Sinapine*310.162.792,764 ± 103c1,977 ± 158b1,640 ± 136b951.0 ± 220.2a
  Syringaldehyde*183.072.9910.92 ± 0.5c4.33 ± 0.71b3.05 ± 0.23a3.45 ± 0.16ab
  Protocatechuic acid153.016.920.13 ± 0.03a0.56 ± 0.12bc0.85 ± 0.12c0.49 ± 0.19b
  p-Hydroxybenzoic acid137.029.702.54 ± 0.16a15.14 ± 0.67bc16.59 ± 0.68c7.27 ± 6.13ab
  Syringic acid197.0514.911.14 ± 0.23a4.07 ± 1.22a12.71 ± 3.83b6.30 ± 2.56a
  trans-Ferulic acid193.0519.870.11 ± 0.09a0.32 ± 0.12ab0.39 ± 0.06b0.23 ± 0.07ab
  Salicylic acid137.0220.352.90 ± 0.07c4.39 ± 0.09d2.06 ± 0.13b1.28 ± 0.27a
  Sinapic acid223.0621.060.94 ± 0.34a0.83 ± 0.47a10.49 ± 2.71b6.65 ± 1.70b
  Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside447.0927.200.22 ± 0.03a4.36 ± 0.23b8.63 ± 1.70c6.71 ± 1.84bc
R. oryzae
  Sinigrin358.033.4213,454 ± 665a14,308 ± 852a14,699 ± 697a15,225 ± 913a
  Sinalbin424.044.8198.37 ± 11.58a98.8 ± 3.50a107.7 ± 2.6a104.8 ± 4.6a
  Glucobrassicin447.059.8518.02 ± 1.07a22.64 ± 1.46b24.00 ± 0.98b23.96 ± 0.99b
  Gluconasturtiin422.0612.4826.09 ± 0.99a27.69 ± 1.13a26.20 ± 2.55a25.06 ± 1.56a
  Sinapine*310.162.791,646 ± 53c825.8 ± 56.4b711.0 ± 122.0ab474.4 ± 159.0a
  Syringaldehyde*183.072.9911.49 ± 0.37c4.48 ± 0.15a4.85 ± 0.55a7.18 ± 0.60b
  Protocatechuic acid153.016.920.08 ± 0.01a0.22 ± 0.06a0.20 ± 0.10a0.10 ± 0.04a
  p-Hydroxybenzoic acid137.029.703.36 ± 0.79a20.32 ± 0.81b20.94 ± 1.45b24.39 ± 1.01c
  Syringic acid197.0514.91n.d.3.87 ± 0.84a10.39 ± 3.94b10.57 ± 3.35b
  trans-Ferulic acid193.0519.87n.d.n.d.n.d.n.d.
  Salicylic acid137.0220.353.35 ± 0.11c0.80 ± 0.19b0.07 ± 0.02a0.14 ± 0.05a
  Sinapic acid223.0621.060.54 ± 0.40a0.42 ± 0.23a0.72 ± 0.71a1.17 ± 0.38a
  Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside447.0927.200.19 ± 0.02a14.54 ± 1.42b19.76 ± 0.82c18.32 ± 1.09c

 

Table 2. Quantification of main glucosinolates and phenolic compounds in yellow mustard bran fermented by A. awamori, R. oligosporus and R. oryzae
 
Compound[M-H]- m/zRT (min)Contents (µg/g)
0 h24 h48 h72 h
*Positive ionization mode was used ([M+H]+). n.d., not detected; RT, retention time. Results are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3) on a dry weight basis. Means followed by a common letter within the same row are not significantly different by the Tukey’s HSD test at the 5% level of significance.
A. awamori
  Sinigrin358.033.4235.58 ± 4.01b31.46 ± 50b20.35 ± 1.47a12.95 ± 1.12a
  Sinalbin424.044.8117,876 ± 1,305c14,780 ± 987b13,209 ± 511ab11,271 ± 327a
  Glucobrassicin447.059.859.19 ± 0.90ab6.80 ± 0.84a10.24 ± 1.52b7.87 ± 1.09ab
  Gluconasturtiin422.0612.480.29 ± 0.08a0.23 ± 0.09an.d.n.d.
  Sinapine*310.162.799,557 ± 745c2,725 ± 474b690.6 ± 614.1a226.1 ± 262.3a
  Syringaldehyde*183.072.995.29 ± 3.15a0.78 ± 0.04a2.89 ± 1.65a2.05 ± 1.29a
  Protocatechuic acid153.016.920.27 ± 0.01a0.66 ± 0.03bc0.87 ± 0.09c0.47 ± 0.13ab
  p-Hydroxybenzoic acid137.029.7022.52 ± 0.39b58.15 ± 3.09c20.75 ± 4.9b6.99 ± 3.32a
  Syringic acid197.0514.912.08 ± 0.64a229.7 ± 11.2b73.78 ± 39.62a46.39 ± 50.66a
  trans-Ferulic acid193.0519.871.77 ± 0.30b1.50 ± 0.18b0.44 ± 0.34a0.17 ± 0.13a
  Salicylic acid137.0220.350.31 ± 0.06b0.18 ± 0.03an.d.n.d.
  Sinapic acid223.0621.0625.08 ± 4.05b81.71 ± 12.89c9.58 ± 2.76ab5.13 ± 3.31a
  Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside447.0927.200.47 ± 0.05a0.58 ± 0.08an.d.n.d.
R. oligosporus
  Sinigrin358.033.4280.94 ± 32.91b45.18 ± 3.87ab36.68 ± 33.19ab6.65 ± 3.98a
  Sinalbin424.044.8123,772 ± 810c24,873 ± 1,330c14,636 ± 521b7,519 ± 2,574a
  Glucobrassicin447.059.8515.83 ± 1.00b21.57 ± 1.22c14.96 ± 0.87b8.14 ± 2.83a
  Gluconasturtiin422.0612.480.46 ± 0.07b0.45 ± 0.02b0.35 ± 0.10ab0.27 ± 0.04a
  Sinapine*310.162.795,037 ± 441c3,959 ± 558b1,862 ± 248a932.2 ± 121.4a
  Syringaldehyde*183.072.997.58 ± 0.20c3.45 ± 0.41b2.36 ± 0.28a2.23 ± 0.05a
  Protocatechuic acid153.016.920.46 ± 0.01a2.13 ± 0.03c2.12 ± 0.46c1.27 ± 0.07b
  p-Hydroxybenzoic acid137.029.7032.03 ± 0.30a109.4 ± 4.4c93.11 ± 18.25bc66.34 ± 23.64ab
  Syringic acid197.0514.913.31 ± 0.05a13.53 ± 1.46a68.34 ± 26.85b148.8 ± 17.5c
  trans-Ferulic acid193.0519.873.24 ± 0.08a6.81 ± 1.06b3.67 ± 0.17a3.47 ± 0.31a
  Salicylic acid137.0220.350.54 ± 0.01a0.72 ± 0.03b0.49 ± 0.11a0.41 ± 0.02a
  Sinapic acid223.0621.0629.15 ± 5.75a269.1 ± 20.0b259.5 ± 102.1b200.6 ± 37.9b
  Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside447.0927.200.76 ± 0.02b1.33 ± 0.17c0.91 ± 0.03b0.43 ± 0.15a
R. oryzae
  Sinigrin358.033.4261.56 ± 2.60b61.57 ± 3.79b42.2 ± 4.63a41.59 ± 2.42a
  Sinalbin424.044.8125,107 ± 767b24,285 ± 656b24,694 ± 441b21,737 ± 568a
  Glucobrassicin447.059.8515.63 ± 0.94a20.78 ± 1.06b23.24 ± 0.83b22.45 ± 1.70b
  Gluconasturtiin422.0612.480.27 ± 0.02a0.51 ± 0.05b0.32 ± 0.03a0.35 ± 0.05a
  Sinapine*310.162.793,191 ± 281c2,160 ± 173b1,334 ± 305a741.2 ± 121.5a
  Syringaldehyde*183.072.996.86 ± 0.08c2.09 ± 0.42a2.60 ± 0.34ab2.95 ± 0.35b
  Protocatechuic acid153.016.920.46 ± 0.01a2.06 ± 0.13b2.62 ± 0.16c2.77 ± 0.17c
  p-Hydroxybenzoic acid137.029.7035.11 ± 0.86a144.9 ± 9.2b233.7 ± 25.4c302.1 ± 15.0d
  Syringic acid197.0514.913.21 ± 0.03a24.5 ± 2.26b65.39 ± 10.06c105.3 ± 7.0d
  trans-Ferulic acid193.0519.873.55 ± 0.13b3.30 ± 0.29b1.63 ± 0.22a2.29 ± 1.18ab
  Salicylic acid137.0220.350.59 ± 0.02b0.26 ± 0.04an.d.n.d.
  Sinapic acid223.0621.0629.73 ± 1.73a339.2 ± 53.0b441.5 ± 87.0b440.0 ± 43.9b
  Kaempferol-3-O-glucoside447.0927.200.78 ± 0.04a2.13 ± 0.19b2.36 ± 0.22b1.97 ± 0.12b