J Food Bioact

Journal of Food Bioactives, ISSN 2637-8752 print, 2637-8779 online

Journal website www.isnff-jfb.com

Review

Volume 3, Number , September 2018, pages 8-75

Bioactives in spices, and spice oleoresins: Phytochemicals and their beneficial effects in food preservation and health promotion

Figures

Figure 1.
Major phytochemicals of Ajowan.

Figure 2.
Major phytochemicals of aniseed.

Figure 3.
Major phenolics of basil.

Figure 4.
Major phytochemicals of bay leaf and fruit.

Figure 5.
Major phytochemicals of black pepper.

Figure 6.
Chemical structure of capsaicin.

Figure 7.
Major phytochemicals of cardamom.

Figure 8.
Major phytochemicals of cinnamon.

Figure 9.
Major phytochemicals of clove.

Figure 10.
Major phytochemicals of coriander.

Figure 11.
Major phytochemicals of cumin.

Figure 12.
Major phytochemicals of curry leaf.

Figure 13.
Major phytochemicals of dill.

Figure 14.
Major phytochemicals of fennel.

Figure 15.
Major flavonoids of fenugreek.

Figure 16.
Major phytochemicals of garlic.

Figure 17.
Major phytochemicals of ginger.

Figure 18.
Major phytochemicals of marjoram.

Figure 19.
Major phytochemicals of nutmeg.

Figure 20.
Major flavonoids of onion.

Figure 21.
Major phenolic compounds of rosemary.

Figure 22.
Major phytochemicals of saffron.

Figure 23.
Major phytochemicals of tamarind.

Figure 24.
Major phytochemicals of thyme.

Figure 25.
Major chemical constituents of turmeric.

Tables

**Table 1.** Chemical composition of ajowan
Parts used	Phytochemicals	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; RE, rutin equivalents; LE, linalool equivalents; and AE, atropine equivalents.
Seed	Phenolics	mg GAE/g	26.4 ± 0.37	Siddhartha et al. 2017
	Flavoinoids	mg RE/g	5.3 ± 0.17
	Terpenoids	mg LE/g	84.2 ± 11.0
	Alkaloids	mg AE/g	0.84 ± 0.06
	Thymol	%	87.75
Essential oil	Carvacrol		11.17	Malhotra and Vijay 2004; Mirzahosseini et al. 2017
	α-Thujene		0.27
	α-Pinene		0.28
	β-Pinene		2.38
	Myrcene		0.81
	p-Cymene		60.78
	Limonene		8.36
	γ-Terpinene		22.26
	Linalool		0.27
	Camphor		0.28
	trans-β-Terpineol		1.35
	Borneol		0.49

**Table 2.** Chemical composition of aniseed
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Anethole	%	90.0–94.0	Rebey et al. 2017; Rodrigues et al. 2003
p-Anisaldehyde		0.10–0.92
γ-Himachalene		1.08–3.11
Estragole		0.20–3.75	Rebey et al. 2017
Gallic acid		0.01–1.22
Chlorogenic acid		24.18–29.37
Caffeic acid		1.22–2.68
p-Coumaric acid		0.69–5.20
Rosmarinic acid		10.32–20.59
Ellargic acid		0.19–1.83
Epicatechin-3-gallate		0.91–8.60
Coumarin		6.28–7.32
Rutin		1.17–11.02
Quercetin		5.00–13.30
Naringin		32.14.33.33
Apigenin		5.59–6.4
Larcitrin		25.26–26.87
Cirsimartin		13.97–17.62

**Table 3.** Phenolic composition of basil
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviation is: GAE, gallic acid equivalents.
Total phenolic	mg GAE/g	21.15–147.	Embuscado 2015; Hossain et al. 2011a; Hinneburg et al. 2006
Rosmarinic acid	mg/g	4.19 ± 0.03	Hossain et al. 2011a
Caffeic acid		0.07 ± 0.00
Gallic acid		0.36 ± 0.02
Carnosol		1.38 ± 0.0
Apigenin-7-O-glucoside		0.18 ± 0.01
Luteolin-7-O-glucoside		1.27 ± 0.01
Estragole	%	38.22	Gebrehiwot et al. 2015
trans-Methyl cinnamate		6.51
α-Caryophyllene		4.56
Eucalyptol		3.46
Eugenol		1.53

**Table 4.** Phenolic composition of bay leaves and fruit
Types of compound	Unit	Content		References
Types of compound	Unit	Leaf	Fruit	References
Phenolic part				M. Lu et al. 2011; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014
Caffeic acid	μg/g	0.44 ± 0.01
Chlorogenic acid		0.13 ± 0.01
Ferulic acid		2.12 ± 0.16
p-Coumaric acid		9.64 ± 0.46
Protocatechuic acid		2.05 ± 0.10
Rosmarinic acid		0.39 ± 0.01		Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014
Syringic acid		0.40 ± 0.02
p-Hydroxybenzoic acid		1.14 ± 0.03
Flavonoid part				M. Lu et al. 2011; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014
Rutin		929.4 ± 19.3
Volatile compounds
1,8-Cineole	%	13.83–66.01	9.5–32.47	Bendjersi et al. 2016; Boulila et al. 2015; Chahal et al. 2017a; Kivrak et al. 2017; Kilic et al. 2004
α-Pinene		1.39–6.27	3.30–16.55
Camphene		0.16–5.23	0.80–2.08
Sabinene		0.34–8.70	1.7–6.03
β-Pinene		0.72–6.22	2.10–12.83
Linalool		0.37–47.21	0.29–1.36
α-Terpineol		0.5–6.83	0.4–1.41
Myrcene		0.25–1.68	0.5–1.14
trans-β-Ocimene		0.05	22.1

**Table 5.** Phenolic composition of black pepper
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; and QE, quercetin equivalents.
Phenolic part
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	3.83–27.20	Andradea and Salvador Ferreira 2013; Embuscado 2015; Shanmugapriya et al. 2012; Siddhartha et al. 2017;
Flavonoids	mg QE/g	2.98 ± 0.07	Shanmugapriya et al. 2012
Gallic acid	µg/mL	32.42	Al-Shahwany 2014
trans-p-Feruloyl-α-D-glucopyranoside		3.68
trans-p-Sinapyl-α-D-glucopyranoside		147.4
Quercetin 3-O-R-L-rhamnopyranoside-7-O-α-D-glucopyranosyl		62.60
Quercetin 3-O-R-L-rhamnopyranoside		4.49
Luteolin 7-O-[2-(α-D-apiofuranosyl)-4-(α-D-glucopyranosyl)		10.84
Kaempferol		11.46
Coumarins		12.92
Volatile compounds
α-Thujene	%	0.73–1.59	Bagheri et al. 2014; Butt et al. 2013; Gopalakrishnan et al. 1993; Mohammed and Omran 2016
α-Pinene		4.25–7.96
Sabinene		1.94–27.30
β-Pinene		2.0–11.08
α-Phellandrene		0.68–2.32
Myrcene		1.15–18.60
Limonene		8.30–23.80
δ-3-Carene		0.18–9.34
Copaene		0.44–3.84
β-Caryophyllene		7.60–52.90
β-Bisabolene		0.49–4.25

**Table 6.** Phenolic composition of capsicum
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: CAE, chlorogenic acid equivalents; QE, quercetin equivalents; and RE, rutin equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	4.79–50.41	Domínguez-Martínez et al. 2014; Pavlovic et al. 2012; Shaimaa et al. 2016
Phenolics	mg CAE/g	5.23–7.71	Padilha et al. 2015
Flavonoids	mg QE/g	3.71–5.12	Shaimaa et al. 2016
Flavonoids	mg RE/g	17.43–25.14	Pavlovic et al. 2012
Gallic acid	mg/100 g	2.12–2.18	Shaimaa et al. 2016
3-Hydroxytyrosol		15.62–25.54
Benzoic acid		16.22–38.20
4-Aminobenzoic acid		6.94–9.86
Protocatchuic acid		4.42–7.03
Chlorogenic acid		20.62–25.68
Catechol		9.21–4.09
Epicatechin		7.29–15.21
p-Hydroxybenzoic acid		6.97–11.48
Caffeic acid		1.11–10.30
Vanillic acid		3.26–3.94
Catechin		4.18–1.19
Rutin		3.75–3.76
Hesperidin		6.67–11.37
Quercetrin		7.40–14.35
Anthocyanins		0.15–4.92	Padilha et al. 2015
Carotenoids		1.54–147.72	Padilha et al. 2015
Capsaicin		752–1247	Domínguez-Martínez et al. 2014
Ascorbic acid		271–474	Domínguez-Martínez et al. 2014

**Table 7.** Phenolic composition of cardamom seeds
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; RE, rutin equivalents; LE, linalool equivalents; and AE, atropine equivalents.
Phenolic part
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	0.96–7.50	De Soysa et al. 2016; Embuscado 2015; Ghosh et al. 2015; Hinneburg et al. 2006; Siddhartha et al. 2017
Protocatechuic acid	mg/kg	0.10–0.15	Variyar and Bandyopadhyay 1995
Gentisic acid		0.50
Caffeic acid		1.85
p-Coumaric acid		0.15–0.20
Flavonoids	mg RE/g	1.45 ± 0.12	Siddhartha et al. 2017
Terpenoids	mg LE/g	71.16 ± 3.5
Alkaloids	mg AE/g	0.89 ± 0.06
Volatile compounds
α-Pinene	%	1.5	Lawrence 1979
β-Pinene		0.2
Sabinene		2.8
Myrcene		1.6
Linalool		3.0
Linalyl acetate		2.5
Limonene		11.6
trans-nerolidol		2.7
α-Terpineol		2.60–5.36	Ghosh et al. 2015; Lawrence 1979
α-Terpinyl acetate		26.53–31.3
1,8-Cineole		22.65–36.3
Terpinen-4-ol		0.90–6.32

**Table 8.** Phenolic composition of cinnamon
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; RE, rutin equivalents; QE, quercetin equivalents; LE, linalool equivalents; and AE, atropine equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	0.42–168.20	Abdelfadel et al. 2016; De Soysa et al. 2016; Embuscado 2015; Ereifej et al. 2016; Gallo et al. 2010; M. Lu et al. 2011; Opara and Chohan 2014; Sahu et al. 2017; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014; Vidanagamage et al. 2016; Ying et al. 2015
Caffeic acid	µg/g	0.45–648.30	Abdelfadel et al. 2016; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014
Chlorogenic acid		0.12–166
Rosmarinic acid		0.73–100.10
Cinnamic acid		620–883.70	Abdelfadel et al. 2016
Pyrogall		100–397
3-Othyros		143–256
Catechol		117–178
trans-Vanillic acid		71.2–5407
Protocatechuic acid		10.16 ± 0.53	Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014
p-Coumaric acid		2.24 ± 0.09
p-Hydroxybenzoic acid		1.19 ± 0.04
Flavonoids	mg RE/g	4.14 ± 0.39	Siddhartha et al. 2017
	mg QE/g	3.07–20.91	Abeysekera et al. 2013; Tacouri et al. 2013
Rutin	µg/g	93.8–570.10	Abdelfadel et al. 2016
Ctechin		16.14–199.0	Abdelfadel et al. 2016; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014
Epicatechin		7.25 ± 0.64	Abdelfadel et al. 2016; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014
Alkaloids Volatile part	mg AE/g	0.99 ± 0.05	Siddhartha et al. 2017
Camphene	%	0.20–2.70	Choi et al. 2016; Jayaprakasha et al. 2002; Vangalapati 2012; Parthasarathy 2008
α-Phellandrene		0.20–2.10
α-Terpinene		0.10–1.80
Limonene		0.80–2.0
β-Phellandrene		0.20–6.30
p-Cymene		0.20–4.10
Linalool		0.89–4.10
β-Caryophyllene		0.10–3.20
α-Terpineol		0.60–1.10
Cinnamaldehyde		56.3–80.0
Cinnamyl acetate		2.4–7.10
Eugenol		2.0–10.0

**Table 9.** Phenolic composition of clove
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; RE, rutin equivalents; QE, quercetin equivalents; and LE, linalool equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	7.81–310.4	Abdelfadel et al. 2016; De Soysa et al. 2016; Embuscado 2015; Ereifej et al. 2016; Kumaravel and Alagusundaram 2014; Mohan et al. 2016; Sahu et al. 2017; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Witkowska et al. 2013; Wojdyło et al. 2007; Zhang et al. 2016
Gallic acid	mg/kg	6470.0–9764.0	Abdelfadel et al. 2016
Caffeic acid		874.0–1918.2
trans-Vanillic acid		4930.0–10839.0
Pyrogall		2727.0–9831.0
Flavonoids	mg QE/g	12.07–14.68	Mohan et al. 2016; Zhang et al. 2016
Flavonoids	mg RE/g	12.8 ± 0.38	Siddhartha et al. 2017
Naringin	mg/kg	271.4–493.0	Abdelfadel et al. 2016
Rutin		3215.1–5597.8
Apegenin		240.5–279.0
Terpenoids	mg LE/g	319.2 ± 6.60	Siddhartha et al. 2017
Volatile part (leaf)			Siddhartha et al. 2017
Eugenol	%	76.8–94.41	Gopalakrishnan et al. 1988; Jirovetz et al. 2006; Raina et al. 2001; Radha Krishnan et al. 2014
β-Caryophyllene		2.91–17.40
α-Humulene		0.36–3.58
Eugenyl acetate		1.20–22.59

**Table 10.** Phenolic composition of coriander
Types of compound	Unit	Content		References
Types of compound	Unit	Seed (fruit)	Leaf	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; LE, linalool equivalents; and AE, atropine equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	0.26–29.21	1.38–30.25	Ereifej et al. 2016; Embuscado 2015; Muñiz-Márquez et al. 2014; Opara and Chohan 2014; Sahu et al. 2017; Shahwar et al. 2012; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Tang et al. 2013; Yildiz 2016
Flavonoids	mg/g	1.91–2.51	0.52	Msaada et al. 2017; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Yashin et al. 2017
Terpenoids	mg LE/g	37.1 ± 3.9	-	Siddhartha et al. 2017
Alkaloids	mg AE/g	0.47 ± 0.03	-
Volatile part
α-Pinene	%	1.2–10.9	1.90	Darughe et al. 2012; Freires et al. 2014; Laribi et al. 2015; Raal et al. 2004; Sahib et al. 2012; Shahwar et al. 2012
Camphene		1.78–44.99	-
Decanal		0.10–4.69	1.73–19.09
Limonene		0.10–7.17	-
γ-Terpinene		3.53–14.42	-
Linalool		37.6–87.54	13.97
Geranyl acetate		0.90–17.57	-
trans-2-Dodecenal		0.10–0.79	17.54–32.23

**Table 11.** Phenolic composition of cumin
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; RE, rutin equivalents; LE, linalool equivalents; AE, atropine equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	4.98–24.66	Chen et al. 2014; Dua 2012; Gallo et al. 2010; Hossain et al. 2011a; Juhaimi 2013; M. Lu et al. 2011; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014
Flavonoids	mg RE/g	12.6 ± 0.1	Siddhartha et al. 2017
Terpenoids	mg LE/g	73.0 ± 5.6
Alkaloids	mg AE/g	1.5 ± 0.06
Gallic acid	μg/g	0.56–287.9	Abdelfadel et al. 2016; Dua 2012; Hossain et al. 2011a; M. Lu et al. 2011; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014
Protocatechuic acid		3.44
Caffeic acid		0.42–3.06
Chlorogenic acid		4.18–86.50
Ferulic acid		21.11
Rosmarinic acid		3.29
Catechin		14.08–189
Epicatechin		6.43
Quercetin		7.5–336.41
Luteolin		2.24–79.7
Kaempferol		215.81
Volatile part
β-Pinene	%	9.05–19.90	Eikani et al. 2007; El-Ghorab et al. 2010; Jirovetz et al. 2006; Khan et al. 2017; Mohammadpour et al. 2012; Moghadam 2016; Nisha et al. 2014; Sowbhagya 2013; Viuda-martos et al. 2007
p-Cymene		15.87–25.2
α-Pinene		15.1–29.2
γ-Terpinene		15.3–29.01
Limonene		1.51–21.7
Cumin aldehyde		18.7–40.88
1,8-Cineole		1.10–18.10
Linalool		0.10–10.5
α-Thujene		0.30–3.05
Thymol		5.01–40.05

**Table 12.** Phenolic composition of curry leaf
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; RE, rutin equivalents; LE, linalool equivalents; and AE, atropine equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	5.5–532.8	Ghasemzadeh et al. 2014; Igara et al. 2016; Ramkissoon et al. 2012; Sasidharan and Menon 2011; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Sivakumar and Meera 2013; Yogesh et al. 2012
Flavonoids	mg RE/g	2.80–11.9	Ghasemzadeh et al. 2014; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Sivakumar and Meera 2013; Yogesh et al. 2012
Terpenoids	mg LE/g	31.5 ± 2.1	Siddhartha et al. 2017
Alkaloids	mg AE/g	0.33 ± 0.02	Siddhartha et al. 2017
Gallic acid	mg/g	0.81–0.93	Ghasemzadeh et al. 2014
Cinnamic acid		0.06–0.07
Ferulic acid		0.281
Vanillic acid		0.52–0.78
Rutin		0.04–0.08
Quercetin		0.30–0.35
Epicatechin		0.60–0.67
Catechin		0.20–0.32
Naringin		0.203
Myricetin		0.50–0.70
Volatile part
α-Pinene	%	4.5–71.5	Jain et al. 2017; Rajendran et al. 2014; Verma et al. 2013
β-Pinene		0.5–13.6
Myrcene		0.5–6.12
trans-β-Ocimene		0.9–3.68
Linalool		0.2–32.83
Sabinene		0.5–66.10
trans-Caryophyllene		1.6–18.0

**Table 13.** Phenolic composition of dill
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviation is: GAE, gallic acid equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	2.15–71.29	Isbilir and Sagiroglu 2011; Kamel 2013; Ninfali et al. 2005; Stankevičius et al. 2010
Flavonoids	mg/100 g	52–672	Ksouri et al. 2015; Ninfali et al. 2005; Yashin et al. 2017
Flavanols		0.73	Ninfali et al. 2005
Quercetin		48–110	Justesen and Knuthsen 2001; Yashin et al. 2017
Isorhamnetin		15–72
Kaempferol		16–24
Myricetin		0.70
Volatile part
α-Phellandrene	%	19.12–62.49	Chahal et al. 2017b; Hojjati 2017; Kazemi 2015a; Lawrence 1980; Singh et al. 2005a; Vokk et al. 2011
Limonene		3.70–83.0
Carvone		20.73–75.92
p-Cymene		1.10–16.60
Sabinene		0.14–11.34
Dill ether		1.02–13.20
γ-Terpinen		0.30–13.96

**Table 14.** Phenolic composition of fennel seed
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviation is: GAE, gallic acid equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	0.30–779.98	Anwar et al. 2009a; Barros et al. 2009; Embuscado 2015; Hinneburg et al. 2006; Hossain et al. 2011a; M. Lu et al. 2011; Oktay et al. 2003; Roby et al. 2013a; Salami et al. 2016b; Tacouri et al. 2013; Ying et al. 2015
Flavonoids	mg/100 g	84–18	Anwar et al. 2009a; Dua et al. 2013; Gulfraz et al. 2005; Kaur and Arora 2009; Salami et al. 2016b; Tacouri et al. 2013; Yashin et al. 2017
Gallic acid		27.71–66.0	Badgujar et al. 2014; Dua et al. 2013; Hossain et al. 2011a; Križman et al. 2007; Kunzemann and Herrmann 1977; Rawson et al. 2013; Roby et al. 2013a; Salami et al. 2016b; Yashin et al. 2017
Caffeic acid		29–83.4
p-Coumaric acid		5.45–42.40
Ellagic acid		9.94
Ferulic acid		1.32–69.70
Chlorogenic acid		9.60–232.5
Myricetin		19.80
Quercetin		21.46–145
Kaempferol		6.50–9.28
Luteolin		2.11–10
Rutin		10.40–69.70
Volatile part
α-Pinene	%	0.17–14.20	Anwar et al. 2009a; Anwar et al. 2009b; Conforti et al. 2006; Diao et al. 2014; Karlsen et al. 1969; Miraldi 1999; Roby et al. 2013a; Ruberto et al. 2000; Shahmokhtar and Armand 2017; Sharopov et al. 2017; Telci et al. 2009
Limonene		2.96–22.4
Estragole		4.50–83.8
Fenchone		1.40–10.5
β-Farnesene		1.60–5.21
trans-Anethole		15.10–90.6

**Table 15.** Phenolic composition of fenugreek seed
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviation is: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; and QE, quercetin equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	4.90–106.31	Al-Juhaimi et al. 2016; Bukhari et al. 2008; Embuscado 2015; Kenny et al. 2013; Kumaravel and Alagusundaram 2014; Madhava Naidu et al. 2011; Premanath et al. 2011; Rababah et al. 2004; Saxena et al. 2016
Flavonoids	mg QE/g	0.47–26.37	Brar et al. 2013; Kumaravel and Alagusundaram 2014; Saxena et al. 2016
Saponins	g/100g	5.12 ± 0.01	Madhava Naidu et al. 2011

**Table 16.** Phenolic composition of garlic
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; QE, quercetin equivalents; and LE, linalool equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	0.16–271.03	Beato et al. 2011; Benkeblia 2005; Bhandari et al. 2014; Bozin et al. 2008; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Szychowski et al. 2018; Tacouri et al. 2013
Flavonoids	mg QE/g	0.12–3.99	Bozin et al. 2008; de Queiroz et al. 2014; Huzaifa et al. 2014; Otunola et al. 2011; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Tacouri et al. 2013
Terpenoids	mg LE/g	144.6 ± 1.0	Siddhartha et al. 2017
Myricetin	mg/kg	0.10–693.0	Beato et al. 2011; Szychowski et al. 2018
Quercetin		47.0–80.60
Gallic acid		1.46–16.38
Caffeic acid		0.10–106.0
Ferulic acid		0.30–56.0
Vanillic acid		0.15–105.0
p-Coumaric acid		0.41–51.0
Syringic acid		44.63–200.2

**Table 17.** Phenolic composition of dried ginger
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviation is: GAE, gallic acid equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	6.69–870.10	Chari et al. 2013; Embuscado 2015; Ereifej et al. 2016; Hinneburg et al. 2006; M. Lu et al. 2011; Opara and Chohan 2014; Shirin and Jamuna 2010; Stoilova et al. 2007; Ying et al. 2015
Pyrogallo	mg/kg	142.4–392.0	Abdelfadel et al. 2016; Tohma et al. 2017
Ferulic acid		88.8–224.7
Caffeic acid		680.2–1600.0
Cinnamic acid		754.4–1710.0
p-Hydroxybenzoic acid		29.4–221.1
p-Coumaric acid		170.2–291.4
Vanillin		10.70–101.2
Rutin		632.6–720.9
Kaempferol		3.36	Yashin et al. 2017
Volatile part			Yashin et al. 2017
Camphene	%	0.10–14.1	Bartley and Jacobs 2000; El-Ghorab et al. 2010; Qin and Xu 2008
p-Cineole		2.83–16.91
α-Terpineol		0.10–10.90
Zingiberene		8.40–24.58
Farnesene		7.50–14.19
β-Bisabolene		3.32–16.72
α-Curcumene		2.29–4.42
Nerolidol		0.17–2.0
β-Sesquiphellandrene		4.27–7.64

**Table 18.** Phenolic composition of dried marjoram
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; and CE, catechin equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	5.20–96.2	Hossain et al. 2012, 2011a; Jelali et al. 2011; Roby et al. 2013b; Vági et al. 2005a
Rosmarinic acid	mg/g	0.49–24.86	Baâtour et al. 2013; Dhull et al. 2016; Hossain et al. 2011a; Hossain et al. 2012; Hossain et al. 2014; Roby et al. 2013b; Sellami et al. 2009
Caffeic acid		0.10–0.28
Gallic acid		2.0–2.20
Carnosic acid		3.01–10.63
Carnosol		1.7–5.89
Apigenin-7-O-glucosid		0.83–0.87
Luteolin-7-O-glucoside		4.6–9.38
Flavonoids	mg CE/g	2.79–5.82	Jelali et al. 2011; Sellami et al. 2009
Amentoflavone	mg/g	1.20	Roby et al. 2013b; Sellami et al. 2009
Luteolin		0.41
Coumarin		0.30
Quercetin		0.46
Apigenin		0.52–38.40
Volatile part
4-Terpineol	%	29.13–32.57	Beltrame et al. 2013; Jelali et al. 2011; Mossa and Nawwar 2011; Novak et al. 2002; Sellami et al. 2009; Vági et al. 2005b; Vera and Chane-Ming 1999
γ-Terpinene		2.11–15.40
trans-Sabinene hydrate		3.50–11.61
cis-Sabinene hydrate		19.90–24.66
α-Terpinen		2.75–6.86
Limonene		1.36–5.26
Sabinene		3.91–4.94

**Table 19.** Phenolic composition of nutmeg seed
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; and QE, quercetin equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	0.10–34.80	Asika et al. 2016; Assa et al. 2014; De Soysa et al. 2016; Gupta et al. 2013; M. Lu et al. 2011; Opara and Chohan 2014
Flavonoids	mg QE/g	1.10	Asika et al. 2016
Volatile part
Sabinene	%	15.10–50.7	Dorman et al. 2000; Ekundayo et al. 2003; Gupta et al. 2013; Juki et al. 2006; Kapoor et al. 2013; Morsy 2016; Muchtaridi et al. 2010; Piras et al. 2012
α-Pinene		10.10–27.9
β-Pinene		7.15–27.10
Myrcene		0.70–3.10
1,8-Cineole		1.50–3.50
Myristicin		0.50–32.80
α-Phellandrene		0.30–6.72
Limonene		2.71–7.50
Terpinen-4-ol		0.10–13.92
Safrole		0.10-12.0

**Table 20.** Phenolic composition of onion
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; and QE, quercetin equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	2.69–384.70	Galdon et al. 2008; Lee et al. 2014; Prakash et al. 2007; Ren et al. 2017a; Siddiq et al. 2013; Singh et al. 2009; Stankevičius et al. 2010; Viera et al. 2017; Yang et al. 2012
Flavonoids	mg QE/g	2.70–183.95	Lee et al. 2014; Ren et al. 2017a; Ren et al. 2017b; Singh et al. 2009; Yashin et al. 2017
Ferulic acid	mg/100 g	210.4–1150.7	Prakash et al. 2007; Singh et al. 2009
Gallic acid		90.30–3540.0
Protocatechuic acid		31.0–1380.0
Quercetin		20.30–511.0	Prakash et al. 2007; Singh et al. 2009; Yashin et al. 2017
Kaempferol		0.65–48.10
Isorhamnetin		4.58
Delphinidin		4.28

**Table 21.** Phenolic composition of rosemary
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; and QE, quercetin equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	1.71–214.20	Hendel et al. 2016; Moreno et al. 2006; Ünver et al. 2009; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014; Witkowska et al. 2013; Wojdyło et al. 2007; Zhang et al. 2016
Flavonoids	mg QE/g	0.27–38.0	Hendel et al. 2016; Yashin et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2016
Rosmarinic acid	mg/g	0.15–55.0	Hernández-Hernández et al. 2009; Hossain et al. 2011a; Mena et al. 2016; Moreno et al. 2006; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014; Wellwood and Cole 2004
Carnosic acid		9.97–305.0
Carnosol		5.03–162.0
Caffeic acid		0.08–0.012
Volatile part
1,8-Cineole	%	2.30–43.77	Bozin et al. 2007; Carvalho et al. 2005; Kadri et al. 2011; Rašković et al. 2014; Takayama et al. 2016
Camphor		1.22–27.70
α-Pinene		11.51–21.3
β-Pinene		4.0–8.16
Limonene		2.80–21.70
Camphene		8.7–11.20

**Table 22.** Phenolic composition of saffron
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; and RE, rutin equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	6.54–16.0	Hassane et al. 2011; Karimi et al. 2010
Flavonoids	mg RE/g	5.88 ± 0.12	Hassane et al. 2011; Karimi et al. 2010
Volatile part
2,6,6-Trimethylcyclohexa-1,3-dienecarbaldehyd	%	18.66	Khayyat 2017; Sampathu et al. 1984
3,5,5-Trimethyl-4 methylenecyclohex-2-enone		14.50
2,6,6-Trimethylcyclohex-2-ene-1,4-dione		12.78
2,6,6-Trimethylcyclohexa-1,4-dienecarbaldehyde		8.09

**Table 23.** Phenolic composition of tamarind (fruit pulp)
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; RE, rutin equivalents; and LE, linalool equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	12.0 ± 0.01	Siddhartha et al. 2017
Flavonoids	mg RE/g	2.0 ± 0.02
Terpenoids	mg LE/g	160.0 ± 3.49
Volatile part
2-Phenyl acetaldehyde	%	25.40	Parthasarathy et al. 2008
2-Furfural		20.70
Hexadecanoic acid		18.10

**Table 24.** Phenolic composition of thyme
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; TAE, tannic acid equivalent; and QE, quercetin equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	2.13–40.65	Embuscado 2015; Hossain et al. 2011a; Roby et al. 2013b; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014; Zheng and Wang 2001
	mg TAE/g	9.07	Nadia and Rachid 2013
Flavonoids	mg QE/g	8.56
Caffeic acid	mg/g	0.10–1.82	Abdelfadel et al. 2016; Hossain et al. 2011a; Köksal et al. 2017; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014; Zheng and Wang 2001
Carnosic acid		6.41
Rosmarinic acid		0.08–3.37
Cinnamic acid	%	28.54	Roby et al. 2013b
Apigenin	%	8.88	Roby et al. 2013b
Luteolin	mg/g	0.39–0.45.	Yashin et al. 2017; Zheng and Wang 2001
Volatile part
α-Pinene	%	1.31–8.0	Al-Asmari et al. 2017; Borugă et al. 2014; Dauqan and Abdullah 2017; De Lira Mota et al. 2012; El-Nekeety et al. 2011; Grigore et al. 2010; Hudaib et al. 2002; Jarić et al. 2015; Kazemi 2015b; Nikolić et al. 2014; Ocaña and Reglero 2012; Rota et al. 2008; Santoro et al. 2007; Satyal et al. 2016; Šegvić Klarić et al. 2007
Carvarcrol		18.51–45.0
p-Cymene		8.41–38.9
Thymol		24.7–80.4
Linalool		0.72–39.2
1,8-Cineole		0.40–6.23
Camphor		0.70–15.14
Camphene		0.75–10.54
γ-Terpinene		9.50–30.90

**Table 25.** Phenolic composition of turmeric
Types of compound	Unit	Content	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; QE, quercetin equivalents; RE, rutin equivalents; LE, linalool equivalents; TE, tannic acid equivalents; and CE, catechin equivalents.
Phenolics	mg GAE/g	6.79–176.87	Embuscado 2015; Ereifej et al. 2016; Maizura et al. 2011; Niranjan et al. 2013; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Tacouri et al. 2013
Flavonoids	mg QE/g	2.810 ± 0.06	Tacouri et al. 2013
Flavonoids	mg RE/g	31.90 ± 1.0	Siddhartha et al. 2017
Terpenoids	mg LE/g	81.24 ± 6.50
Total curcumin	%	2.20–8.43	Braga et al. 2003; Chinedum et al. 2015; Kimthet et al. 2017; Osorio-Tobón et al. 2014; Schieffer 2002; Yadav et al. 2013
Turmerone		20.0–56.42	Chen et al. 1983; Cooray et al. 1988; Ferreira et al. 2013; Gopalan et al. 2000; Li et al. 1997; Nigam and Ahmed 1991; Niranjan et al. 2013; Sandeep et al. 2016
α-Turmerone		8.40–70.30
Curlone		1.55–20.83
β-Curcumene		1.58–24.53
p-Cymene		0.21–24.09
α-Curcumene		12.20–34.0	Hu et al. 1997; Kiso et al. 1983
Sesquiterpines		5.20–53.0	Abdel-Lateef et al. 2016; Nisar et al. 2015
Zingiberene		0.98–36.80	Li et al. 1997; Nigam and Ahmed 1991

**Table 26.** Reported antioxidant activity in common spices
Spices	DPPH	ABTS	FRAP	Reducing potential	ORAC	References
Abbreviations are: GAE, gallic acid equivalents; TE, trolox equivalents; AAE, ascorbic acid equivalents; DW, dry weight; and FW, fresh weight.
Ajowan	95.7 ± 3.0 (%) at 250 µg/100 µL	127.3 ± 0.91 (mg TE/g)	13.57 ± 0.12 (µmol Fe²⁺/g)	12.78 ± 0.12 (Ec₅₀ µg GAE/g)	–	Ishtiaque et al. 2013; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Tacouri et al. 2013
Basil	2.46 ± 0.07 (g TE/100 g)	2.87 ± 0.03 (g TE/100 g)	5.83 ± 0.08 (g TE/100 g)	–	17.57 ± 0.10 (g TE/100 g)	Hossain et al. 2011a
Bay leaf	65–95 (%), 216.2–736.54 (IC₅₀ µg/mL)	47.71 ± 13.84 (%), 101.16–1410.74 (IC₅₀ µg/mL), 250.32–424.83 (µmol TE/g)	504.25 ± 26.74 (µmol TE/g), 593.79 ± 7.89 (µmol of Fe/g)	45.38 ± 2.6 (Ec₅₀ µg GAE/ g)	–	Boulila et al. 2015; Kivrak et al. 2017; M. Lu et al. 2011; Muñiz-Márquez et al. 2014; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Soomro 2016; Ying et al. 2015
Black pepper	19.5–82.78 (%)	49.2 ± 0.6 (mg TE/g)	–	11.60 ± 0.8 (Ec₅₀ µg GAE/g)	–	Gülçin 2005; Siddhartha et al. 2017
Capsicum	1174.58–3439.12 (mg TE/g)	8–44.6 (μmol TE/g)	14.1–82.3 (μmol TE/g)	–	–	Hervert-Hernndez et al. 2010; Padilha et al. 2015
Cardamom	7.5 (%)	38.2 ± 0.03 (mg TE/g)	104.9 ± 5.3 (mg TE/g)	15.16 ± 0.21 (Ec₅₀ µg GAE/g)	–	De Soysa et al. 2016; Embuscado 2015; Siddhartha et al. 2017
Cinnamon	1.88–364 (%), 33.96–107 (mg TE/g)	89.09–319.8 (mg TE/g), 525.85–1119.9 (μmol TE/g)	637 ± 46.78 (μmol TE/g), 104.9 ± 5.3 (mg TE/g)	4.06 ± 0.3 (Ec₅₀ µg GAE/g)	22.14–44.77 (mg TE/g)	Abeysekera et al. 2013; De Soysa et al. 2016; Embuscado 2015; Gallo et al. 2010; M. Lu et al. 2011; Przygodzka et al. 2014; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Tacouri et al. 2013; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014; Vidanagamage et al. 2016
Clove	8.84–1353.3 (μmol TE/g)	3.46–5.98 (μmol TE/g)	2133 ± 6.87 (μmol TE/g), 974.3 ± 28.5 (mg TE/g)	2.3 ± 0.09 (Ec₅₀ µg GAE/g)	–	De Soysa et al. 2016; Embuscado 2015; Mohan et al. 2016; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Wojdyło et al. 2007
Coriander (seed)	13.69–72.37 (%), 16.4 (μmol TE/100 g)	9.22 (%), 18.9 ± 0.07 (mg TE/g)	1.198–68.76 (mmol TE/100 g)	13 ± 0.70 (Ec₅₀ µg GAE/g)	–	Gallo et al. 2010; Muñiz-Márquez et al. 2014; Siddhartha et al. 2017
Cumin	18.12–88.43 (%), 2.16–8.8 (mg TE/g)	3.26–76.9 (mg TE/g)	1.40–10.83 (mg TE/g)	14.69 ± 1.4 (Ec₅₀ µg GAE/g)	5.76 (g TE/100 g)	Gallo et al. 2010; Hossain et al. 2011a; M. Lu et al. 2011; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014
Curry leaf	61–76.43 (%)	25.9 ± 0.15 (mg TE/g)	2.12 (mg AAE/mL)	21.29 ± 1.7 (Ec₅₀ µg GAE/g)	–	Ramkissoon et al. 2012; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Yogesh et al. 2012
Dill	40.10–86.0 (%)	–	2.39 (mM equivalent to FeSO_4.7H₂O)	–	43.92 (μmol TE/g)	Oshaghi et al. 2016; Kamel 2013; Ninfali et al. 2005
Fennel	6.23–96.15 (%), 20.6 (μmol TE/g)	1.23 (g TE/100 g), 55.77 (μmol TE/g)	1.5 (g TE/100 g), 72.40 (μmol TE/g)	–	6.64 (g TE/100 g)	Embuscado 2015; Ghanem et al. 2012; Hossain et al. 2011a; M. Lu et al. 2011; Salami et al. 2016a
Fenugreek	25.0–88.70 (%), 35.33 (mg TE/g)	–	77.35 (mg TE/g)	–	–	Brar et al. 2013; Kenny et al. 2013; Saxena et al. 2016
Garlic	27.5 (%)	91.1 ± 0.1 (mg TE/g)	0.36 ± 0.006 (g TE/100 g)	8.22 ± 0.6 (Ec₅₀ µg GAE/g)	–	Bhandari et al. 2014; Hossain et al. 2008; Siddhartha et al. 2017
Ginger	32.38–90.1 (%)	15.1–19.6 (mg TE/g)	157.95 ± 2.2 (μmol TE/g)	14.22 ± 0.9 (Ec₅₀ µg GAE/g)	–	Hossain et al. 2008; M. Lu et al. 2011; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Stoilova et al. 2007
Marjoram	91.89 (%), 8.21 (g TE/100 g)	8.14 (g TE/100 g)	12.26–18.96 (g TE/100 g)	–	25.36 (g TE/100 g)	Dhull et al. 2016; Hossain et al. 2012, 2011a
Nutmeg	63.04–88.7 (%)	213.91 ± 17.65 (μmol TE/g)	369.50 ± 2.98 (μmol TE/g)	–	–	Gupta et al. 2013; M. Lu et al. 2011
Onion	89.72 (%), 1.42–5.20 (μmol TE/g)	9.70 ± 0.03 (mg TE/g)	2.48–5.76 (μmol TE/g)	22.12 ± 2.9 (Ec₅₀ µg GAE/g)	–	Lee et al. 2014; X. Lu et al. 2011; Siddhartha et al. 2017
Rosemary	90.10 (%), 11.02 ± 0.10 (g TE/100 g), 513 ± 5.99 (μmol TE/100 g)	38.70 ± 0.11 (μmol TE/100 g), 18.34 ± 0.20 (g TE/100 g)	662 ± 4.66 (μmol TE/100 g), 47.90 (mmol/100 g), 14.54 ± 0.25 (g TE/100 g)	–	26.90 ± 0.20 (g TE/100 g)	Embuscado 2015; Hossain et al. 2011a; Wojdyło et al. 2007
Saffron	15.69–19.67 (%)	0.04–1.25 (mmol TE/100 g)	17.5–391.12 (mmol TE/100 g)	–	–	Embuscado 2015; Gallo et al. 2010
Tamarind (fruit pulp)	–	79.6 ± 0.56 (mg TE/g)	–	10.4 ± 0.57 (Ec₅₀ µg GAE/g)	–	Siddhartha et al. 2017
Thyme	52 (%), 4.34 ± 0.06 (g TE/100 g), 1.98 ± 0.17 (mmol TE/g)	15.31 ± 0.10 (g TE/100 g), 2.39 ± 0.17 (mmol TE/g)	8.80 ± 0.02 (g TE/100 g), 56.3–59.1 (mmol/100 g)	–	20.64 ± 0.07 (g TE/100 g)	Embuscado 2015; Hossain et al. 2011a; Vallverdú-Queralt et al. 2014
Turmeric	100 ± 2.56 (μmol TE/100 g), 9.60 (μmol TE/g)	19.50 ± 0.45 (μmol TE/100 g), 121.8 ± 0.9 (mg TE/g)	62.60 ± 1.01 (μmol TE/100 g), 10.20 (mmol/100 g)	25.55 ± 0.8 (Ec₅₀ µg GAE/g)	–	Embuscado 2015; Siddhartha et al. 2017; Wojdyło et al. 2007

**Table 27.** Antimicrobial properties of spice against test microorganism
Spice	Active compound	Test microorganism	References
Ajowan	Thymol, carvacrol, and eugenol	Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus mutans, Klebsiella pneumoniae, E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus ochraceus Aspergillus parasiticus, Aspergillus niger, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella typhimurium, and Enterobactor aerogen	Ganapathi and Roy 2017; Hassanshahian et al. 2014; Kim et al. 2016; Mihajilov-Krstev et al. 2009; Moein et al. 2015; Omidpanah et al. 2016; Paul et al. 2011; Siddhartha et al. 2017
Aniseed	t-Anithole	Micrococcus luteus, Mycobacterium smegmatu, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Paenibacillus larvae, and E. coli	Al-Bayati 2008; Ates and Erdogrul 2003; Foroughi et al. 2016; Gende et al. 2009; Mohamed et al. 2015; Salim et al. 2016
Basil	Linalool, methyl chavicol, 1,8-cineole, eugenol, and estragol	Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus, Pseudomonas, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Pasteurella multocida, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Mucor mucedo, Fusarium solani, Botryodiplodia theobromae, Rhizopus solani, Cladosporium herbarum, Eurotium amstelodami, Eurotium chevalieri, Botrytis fabae, Fusarium oxysporum, and Rhizopus nigricans	Abou El-Soud et al. 2015; Jakowienko et al. 2011; Hussain et al. 2008; Opalchenova and Obreshkova 2003; Oxenham et al. 2005; Reuveni et al. 1984; Stanojevic et al. 2017
Bay Leaf	1,8-Cineole and sabinene	Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella typhimurium, Serratia sp., Proteus sp., Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumanii, Glomus deserticola, and Glomus intraradices	Bennadja et al. 2013; Dadalioǧlu and Evrendilek 2004; Hassiotis 2010; Ramos et al. 2012
Black Pepper	Piperine and β-caryophyllene	Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aerogenosa, Proteus mirabilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumonia, Bacillus subtilis, Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium graminearum, Penicillium viridcatum, Aspergillus ochraceus, and Candida albicans	Akthar et al. 2014; Karsha and Lakshmi 2010; Mohammed et al. 2016; Morsy and Abd El-Salam 2017; Rani et al. 2013; Singh et al. 2004
Capsicum	Capsaicin and capsanthin	Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, Cryptococcus neoformans, Candida albicans, and Aspergillus flavus	Anikwe et al. 2017
Cardamom	1,8-Cineol and α-terpinyl acetate	Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Aspergillus terreus, Penicillium purpurogenum, Fusarium graminearum, and Penicillium madriti	Kapoor et al. 2008; Kubo et al. 1991; Singh et al. 2008
Cinnamon	Cinnamaldehyde and eugenol	Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomona aeruginosa, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Lactobacillus plantarum, Listeria monocytogenes, Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger, Rhodotorula glutinis, Aspergillus ochraceus, and Fusarium moniliforme	Hoque et al. 2008; Kong et al. 2007; Mazimba et al. 2015; Nanasombat and Wimuttigosol 2011
Clove	Eugenol	Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Aeromonas hydrophila, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Citrobacter freundii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Yersinia enterocolitica, Trichophyton rubrum, Epidermophyton floccosum, Microsporum gypseum, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium commune, Fusarium redolens, Candida, and Aspergillus	Hamini-Kadar et al. 2014; Lee et al. 2009; Park et al. 2007; Pinto et al. 2009; Saikumari et al. 2016
Coriander	Linalool, camphor, and alcohols	Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Escherichia coli, Bacillus megaterium, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Enterococcus Faecalis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella, and Candida.	Lo Cantore et al. 2004; Sasi Kumar et al. 2014; Silva et al. 2011; Silva and Domingues 2017; Wong and Kitts 2006; Yildiz 2016
Cumin	Cumin aldehyde, cymene, and thymol	Agrobacterium, Clavibacter, Curtobacterium, Ralstonia, Rhodococcus, Erwinia, E. coli, Bacillus subtilis; Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Lactococcus garvieae, Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus niger, and Aspergillus flavus	Iacobellis et al. 2005; Jirovetz et al. 2005; Kedia et al. 2014; Mijiti et al. 2017; Pour et al. 2014
Curry leaf	α-Pinene and sabinene	Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus luteus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans, Fusarium oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani, Shigella sonnei, and Candida utilis	Malwal and Sarin 2011; Rajnikant et al. 2015; Selvamani and Balamurugan 2014; Vats et al. 2011
Dill	Carvone, α-phellandrene, and limonene	Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus facium, E. coli, Salmonella typhi, Shigella dysenteriae, Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas Aeruginosa, Salmonella enteritidis, Candida albicans, Penicillium citrinum, and Aspergillus niger	Hojjati 2017; Singh et al. 2005a; Stanojević et al. 2016
Fennel	t-Anethole and limonene	Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus pumilus, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Aspergillus flavus, Bacillus cereus, Alternaria alternata, Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium oxysporum, and Candida albicans	Anwar et al. 2009a; Anwar et al. 2009b; Dua et al. 2013; Ozcan et al. 2006; Roby et al. 2013a; Senatore et al. 2013
Fenugreek	Flavonoids	Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris, Bacillus subtilis, Shigella flexneri, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Aspergillus niger, Candida parapsilosis, Candida albicans, Trichophyton rubrum, Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium graminearum, and Rhizoctinia solani	Anbumalarmathi et al. 2016; Dathar et al. 2017; Haouala et al. 2008; Kumari et al. 2016; Premanath et al. 2011; Walli et al. 2015
Garlic	Allicin	Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella enteritidis, E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Candida albicans, Candida stellatoidea, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, and Microsporum canis	Benkeblia 2004; Hughes and Lawson 1991; Kallel et al. 2014; Rees et al. 1993; Strika et al. 2017
Ginger	Gingerol, shogaols, and zingerone	Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Shigella sonnei, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Candida glabrata, Candida albicans, Aspergillus nige, Aspergillus ochraceous, Costus discolor, Rhizoctonia solani, and pilosoma obliqua	Agarwal et al. 2001; Gao and Zhang 2010; Gull et al. 2012; Habsah et al. 2000; Sah et al. 2012; Sabulal et al. 2006; Yassen and Ibrahim 2016
Marjoram	4-Terpineol and carvacrol	Pseudomonas fluorescen, E. coli, Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Aspergillus niger, Trichoderma viride, Penicillium cyclopium, Fusarium solani, Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus oryzae, Rhizoctonia oryzae-sativae, and Pentatrichomonas hominis	Aligiannis et al. 2001; Busatta et al. 2008; Charai et al. 1996; Deans and Svoboda 1990; Kozłowska et al. 2010; Leeja and Thoppil 2007; Omara et al. 2014; Vági et al. 2005
Nutmeg	Sabinene and myristicin	E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus mutans, Staphylococcus epidermis, Streptococcus salivarius, Streptococcus mitis, Shigella Dysenteriae, Salmonella Typhi Fusobacterium nucleatum, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Aspergillus niger, and Fusarium graminearum	Gupta et al. 2013; Narasimhan and Dhake 2006; Nurjanah et al. 2017; Shafiei et al. 2012; Singh et al. 2005b
Onion	Quercetin and kaempferol	E. coli, Bacillus subtilis, Streptococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumonia, Salmonella typhi, Salmomella Enteritidis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium cyclopium, Microsporum canis, and Trichophyton simii	Azu and Onyeagba 2006; Begum and Yassen 2015; Benkeblia 2004; Ma et al. 2018; Ye et al. 2013; Zohri et al. 1995
Rosemary	Carnosol, rosmanol, borneol, and α-pinene	Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella typhi, Salmonella enteritidis, Shigella sonei, Listeria monocytogenes, Alternaria alternata, Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium graminearum, and Candida albicans	Abramovič et al. 2012; Angioni et al. 2004; Bozin et al. 2007; Issabeagloo et al. 2012; Genena et al. 2008; Jarrar et al. 2010; Okoh et al. 2010; Özcan and Chalchat 2008; Pintore et al. 2002
Saffron	Safranal and crocin	Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enteritidis, Bacillus anthracis, Shigella flexneri, Klebsiella pneumonia, Proteus vulgaris, Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus, and Aspergillus niger	Jadouali et al. 2018; Khayyat 2017; Muzaffar et al. 2016; Parray et al. 2015; Soureshjan and Heidari 2014
Tamarind	Phenolic acids	Klebsiella pneumonia, Micrococcus luteus, Salmonella paratyphi, Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella typhi Pseudomonas, E. coli, aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus niger, Candida tropicalis, Candida albicans, and Debaryomyces hansenii	Adedayo et al. 2016; Doughari 2006; Gumgumjee 2012; Nwodo et al. 2011
Thyme	Thymol, carvacrol, and tannins	Rhizopus oryzae, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus cereus E. col, Salmonella enterica, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Listeria innocua, Listeria monocytogenes, Proteus vulgaris, and Salmonella Thyphimurium	Al-Bayati 2008; Boskovic et al. 2015; De Lira Mota et al. 2012; Marino et al. 1999; Nikolić et al. 2014; Rota et al. 2008; Varga et al. 2015
Turmeric	Curcuminoids	Bacillus coagulans, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Klebsiella pneumonia, E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Shigella spp., Salmonella typhi, and Candida albicans	Behera and Rath 2011; Gul and Bakht 2015; Gupta et al. 2015; Lourenço et al. 2013; Negi et al. 1999; Niamsa and Sittiwet 2009

**Table 28.** Health promoting properties and mechanisms of actions demonstrated by common spices determined in human and animal studies
Health effects	Spices/bioactives	Results/mechanisms	References
Anticancer	Turmeric (curcumin)	Inhibited head and neck cancer.	Aggarwal et al. 2004; LoTempio et al. 2005
		Inhibited the growth of lung cancer.	Abbas et al. 2015; Starok et al. 2015
		Reduced breast cancer.	Bimonte et al. 2015; Strofer et al. 2011
		Inhibited proliferation of gastric cancer cell by inducing apoptosis.	Liu et al. 2014
		Reduced colorectal cancer.	Carroll et al. 2011
		Inhibited uterus cancer by eliminating HPV+ cervical cancer cells.	Debata et al. 2013
		Delayed prostate cancer.	Shah et al. 2012
		Increased cell death in a hematopoietic tumor.	Staege et al. 2013
	Ginger (6-shogaol)	Possessed cytotoxicity on human lung cancer A549 and breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cells.	Hsu et al. 2015
		Inhibited human COLO 205 colorectal cancer cells via caspase activation, ROS production, and GADD 153 expression.	Min et al. 2008
	Ginger (6-gingerol)	Inhibited cell proliferation and induced apoptosis in colon cancer cells.	Radhakrishna et al. 2014
	Ginger (shogaols)	Exhibited toxicity towards human colon cancer cells.	Fu et al. 2014
	Ginger extract	Induced apoptosis in human prostate cancer cells.	Karna et al. 2012
	Ginger	Suppressed colon cancer in the presence of the procarcinogen 1,2-dimethylhydrazine.	Manju and Nalini 2005
	Garlic (diallyl disulfide)	Possessed cytotoxicity effects against breast cancer.	Xiao et al. 2014
	Garlic (diallyl sulfide and diallyl disulfide)	Inhibited arylamine N-acetyltransferase activity and 2-aminofluorene-DNA adduct in a human promyelocytic leukemia cell.	Lin et al. 2002
		Suppressed diethylstilbestrol-induced DNA damage in breast epithelial cells.	McCaskill et al. 2014
		Anticarcinogenic effects in human gastric cancer cells.	Ling et al. 2014
	Garlic	Inhibited colorectal cancer.	Tung et al. 2015
	Garlic (diallyl trisulfide)	Inhibited human leukemic cell line U937.	Suda et al. 2014
		Inhibited prostate cancer cells PC-3 and noncancerous human prostate epithelial cells PNT1A.	Borkowska et al. 2013.
	Garlic	Reduced the growth of lung tumor cells.	Jo et al. 2014
	Onion	Exhibited strong protective effects on the DNA molecule and antiproliferative property on human cancer cell mainly breast cancer.	Fredotovíc et al. 2017
	Onion (quercetin)	Inhibited human oral cancer cells.	Lai et al. 2013
	Onion (ethyl acetate extract)	Induced human breast cancer cells apoptosis and decreased lipid accumulation of 3T3-L1 adipocytes via inhibiting intracellular fatty acid synthase activity.	Wang et al. 2012
	Red onion	Potential decrease the risk of ovarian cancer.	Inoue-Choi et al. 2013
	Saffron	Alveolar basal epithelial carcinoma cells were inhibited, which might be a potential anticancer agent in lung cancer.	Samarghandian et al. 2011
	Saffron (crocetin)	Inhibited gastric cancer cells.	Bathaie et al. 2013
	Saffron (crocin)	Induced an autophagy-independent cell death in colon cancer cells.	Amin et al. 2015
		Reduced cell proliferation in the malignant prostate cancer cells.	D’Alessandro et al. 2013
		Exhibited potential cytotoxic effects on leukemic cells.	Rezaee et al. 2013
	Black pepper (piperine)	Inhibited the growth of triple negative breast cancer cells.	Greenshields et al. 2015
		Inhibited breast cancer cells via activating caspase-3 and PARP cleavage.	Do et al. 2013
		Suppressed prostate cancer cells.	Makhov et al. 2012; Samykutty et al. 2013
		Inhibited cell cycle progression and induced apoptosis.	Yaffe et al. 2013
	Capsicum (capsaicin)	Showed pro-apoptotic activity in human small cell lung cancer cells.	Lau et al. 2014
		Inhibited breast cancer cells.	Wu et al. 2014
		Inhibited the proliferation of human gastric cancer cells and induced apoptosis.	Park et al. 2014a
		Inhibited cholangiocarcinoma cells via Hedgehog signaling pathway.	Wutka et al. 2014
		Reduced prostate tumors.	Venier et al. 2015
		Induced apoptosis in acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells.	Bozok et al. 2014
	Rosemary (leaf extracts)	Exerted a cytotoxic effect against colon cancer cells.	Gonzalez-Vallinas et al. 2013
	Rosemary (carnosic acid)	Showed anticancer properties in pancreatic and colon cancer via GCNT3 expression.	Gonzalez-Vallinas et al. 2014a
	Rosemary (carnosol)	Induced apoptosis in colon cancer via generating ROS.	Park et al. 2014b
		Decreased glutathione in the adult lymphoma cells.	Ishida et al. 2014
	Rosemary (extract)	Showed antitumor activity against breast cancer cells.	Gonzalez-Vallinas et al. 2014b
		Suppressed tumor growth in human prostate cancer cells.	Petiwala et al. 2014
		Blocked clonogenic survival, inhibited proliferation, and enhanced apoptosis of A549 lung cancer cells.	Moore et al. 2016
	Clove (eugenol)	Inhibited breast cancer via targeting the E2F1/survivin pathway.	Al-Sharif et al. 2013
		Exhibited anti-inflammatory activities in human cervical cancer cells.	Hussain et al. 2011
		Exhibited an effective anticancer activity in the mammary carcinoma model in vivo and in vitro.	Kubatka et al. 2017
	Cinnamon (cinnamaldehyde)	Exerted a synergistic effect on cytotoxicity in colorectal carcinoma cells.	Yu et al. 2014
	Cinnamon (aquas extract)	Induced apoptosis in the myelocytic leukemia cells.	Assadollahi et al. 2015
	Bay leaf	Inhibited melanoma cell growth.	Panza et al. 2011
	Cumin	Spent cumin generated from Ayurvedic industry showed Inhibitory activity in arresting the cell cycle and inducing apoptosis.	Arun et al. 2016
	Cardamom	Potential chemopreventive agent against forestomach cancer.	Qiblawi et al. 2015
	Coriander (essential oil)	Showed low cytotoxicity with putative mechanisms via modulation of gene expression in chemokine as well as mitogen-stimulated protein kinase pathways.	Freires et al. 2014
	Curry leaf	Inhibited the growth of breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231).	Ghasemzadeh et al. 2014
	Fennel seed (methanolic extract)	Showed anticancer potential against breast cancer and liver cancer cell lines.	Mohamad et al. 2011
	Fenugreek seeds	Inhibited 7,12-dimethyl benz(α)anthracene-induced breast cancer in rats at 200 mg/kg body wt.	Amin et al. 2005
		Showed in vitro cytotoxicity against different human cancer cells lines such as lung, liver, neuroblastima, and colon.	Verma et al. 2010
	Marjoram (ethanol extract)	Exhibited significant cytotoxicity to fibrosarcoma cancer cell line and minimum toxicity to normal human lymphocytes when compared to the controls.	Rao et al. 2014
	Nutmeg (myristicin)	Altered mitochondrial membrane function, induced apoptotic mechanisms and modified gene expression in human leukemia K562 cells.	Martins et al. 2014
	Tamarind bark (cantharidin)	Responsible for inhibition of proliferation and induction of apoptosis in the cancer cells (HeLa and PA-1).	Shirisha and Varalakshmi 2016
	Tamarind (caffeic acid)	Potential protection of HepG2 cells against lipid peroxidation.	Razali et al. 2015
	Thyme (essential oil)	Inhibited the growth of UMSCC1 tumor cells at high concentrations (369 μg/mL) through N-glycan biosynthesis and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 5 signaling.	Sertel et al. 2011
Anti-diabetic	Bay leaf	Reduced type 2 diabetes.	Khan et al. 2009
	Cinnamon	Improved fasting blood glucose in people with type 2 diabetes.	Davis and Yokoyama 2011
		Reduced triacylglycerol, total cholesterol, serum glucose, and LDL cholesterol levels.	Khan et al. 2003
	Fenugreek	Controlled of type 2 diabetes mellitus in the form of soaked in hot water.	Kassaian et al. 2009
	Fenugreek seeds	Showed beneficial effects on glycemic control in persons with diabetes.	Neelakantan et al. 2014
	Cumin seed	Improved the activities of chymotrypsin, pancreatic trypsin, and amylase (1.25% cumin for 8 weeks).	Platel and Srinivasan 2000
	Cumin (cuminaldehyde)	Inhibited lens aldose reductase and α-glucosidase of rats.	Lee 2005
	Cumin	Decreased the blood glucose and plasma level and also tissue lipids in alloxan diabetic rats.	Dhandapani et al. 2002
	Ginger	Improved total antioxidant activity and glycemic indices in type 2 diabetes patients.	Shidfar et al. 2015
		Exhibited nephroprotective effect through activities of intra-mitochondrial and extra-mitochondrial enzymes.	Ramudu et al. 2011
		Exhibited potential hypoglycemic properties through its effects on the activities of glycolytic enzymes.	Abdulrazaq et al. 2012
	Turmeric	Exhibited beneficial effect on oxidative stress, inflammation, and blood glucose.	Selvi et al. 2015
		Inhibited secretion of leptin, overproduction of ROS, and pro-inflammatory mediators, whereas increased adiponectin in plasma, secretion of insulin, and serum adiponectin insulin.	Yadav and Chaudhury 2016
	Onion (quercetin)	Lowered glycemic response and prevented glucose absorption.	Cermak et al. 2004
	Onion	Induced alleviation of hyperglycemia in streptozotocin diabetic rats.	Campos et al. 2003
		Exhibited hypoglycemic effects, when ingested of crude onion (100 g) caused a significant reduction in fasting blood glucose in type 1 and 2 diabetic patients.	Eldin et al. 2010
	Clove	Could improve the mechanism of insulin and lower glucose, triacylglycerol, LDL, and total cholesterol level.	Khan et al. 2006
	Capsicum (oleoresin)	Had a lower level of sugars induced by the inhibitory activity of alpha amylase.	Sricharoen et al. 2017
	Curry leaf	Lowered blood glucose and blood cholesterol levels in diabetic ob/ob mice.	Xie et al. 2006
	Dill	Suggested for the treatment of advanced glycation endproducts-mediated complications in diabetic patients.	Oshaghi et al. 2015
	Fennel (fruit)	Lowered glucose and triacylglycerol contents as compared with diabetic control.	Dongare et al. 2010
	Fennel (essential oil)	Corrected the hyperglycemia and pathological abnormalities in diabetic induced rats.	El-Soud et al. 2011
	Garlic	Lowered fasting blood glucose and postprandial blood glucose.	Kumar et al. 2013
	Nutmeg (macelignan)	Reduced serum glucose, free fatty acid, insulin, and triacylglycerol levels in db/db mice and improved insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolic disorders by activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α/γ and attenuating endoplasmic reticulum stress.	Han et al. 2008
	Tamarind seeds (aqueous extract)	Minimized hyperglycemic excursion by repressing pancreatic beta cell damage and normalizing sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBP-1c) concentration.	Sole et al. 2013
Immunomodulatory effect	Black pepper and cardamom	Exerted immunomodulatory roles and antitumor activities.	Majdalawieh and Carr 2010
	Clove	Showed potential immunomodulatory effect on macrophages.	Dibazar et al. 2015
	Onion (lectin)	Exhibited lymphoproliferative activity through thymocytes, induced a Th1 immune response, and proinflammatory responsive mode in macrophages and promote phagocytosis.	Prasanna and Venkatesh 2015
	Saffron	Decreased blood glucose, total lipids, triacylglycerol, malondialdehyde, cholesterol, and nitric oxide levels, whereas increased catalase, glutathione level, and superoxide dismutase activities in a dose dependent manner.	Samarghandian et al. 2017
Anti-inﬂammatory	Cumin (essential oil)	Exerted anti-inﬂammatory activities via inhibition of NF-κB and mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK and JNK.	Wei et al. 2015
		Controlled inflammation process by inhibiting the arachidonic acid metabolism.	Chainani-Wu 2003
		Inhibited cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase.	Mustafa et al. 1993
	Marjoram and sweet basil (essential oils)	Suppressed the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, gene expression in LPS, and ox-LDL THP-1 activation.	Arranz et al. 2015
	Black pepper (oleoresin)	Exhibited comparable anti-inflammatory activities with ascorbic acid and diclofenac sodium.	Nagavekar and Singhal 2017
	Dill (sabinene)	Showed a potent NO-scavenging capacity and inhibited inducible NO synthase expression.	Kazemi 2015a
	Fennel (methanolic extract)	Showed anti-inflammatory, central analgesic, and antitype IV allergic properties at a dose of 200 mg/kg in mice and rats.	Choi and Hwang 2004
	Fenugreek seeds (ethanol extract)	Showed significant anti-inflammatory effect in a dose dependent manner when compared with saline control at 75 and 150 mg/kg b.w.	Subhashini et al. 2011
	Garlic (powder extracts)	Decreased lipopolysaccharide-induced production of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor-α in human blood.	Keiss et al. 2003
	Garlic (alliin)	Controlled the inflammatory state of adipocytes by lowering IL-6 and MCP-1 expressions.	Quintero-Fabian et al. 2013
	Red ginger	Suppressed acute and chronic inflammation and also inhibited NO production.	Shimoda et al. 2010
	Nutmeg (macelignan)	Exhibited anti-inflammatory activities on T helper type cell-mediated allergic lung inflammation.	Shin et al. 2013
	Red onion scales (methanolic extract)	Indicated a protective effect against atypical prostatic hyperplasia induced rats that may have potential anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties.	Elberry et al. 2014
	Rosemary (carnosic acid)	Exhibited potential protection against lipopolysaccharide-induced oxidative injury and liver toxicity.	Xiang et al. 2013
	Tamarind seed (methanol extract)	Demonstrated dose dependant anti-inflammatory activity, lack ulcerogenicity, and central analgesic activity.	Bandawane et al. 2013
	Thyme (essential oil, thymol, and cavacrol)	Inhibited inflammatory edema and leukocyte migration.	Fachini-Queiroz et al. 2012
Digestive stimulant action	Ginger	Stimulated the activity of terminal digestive enzymes of the small intestinal mucosa.	Platel and Srinivasan 1996
	Ginzer and fenugreek	Increased bile acid production and decreased bile solids when they were given in the diet.	Bhat et al. 1985
	Ginger, fenugreek, turmeric capsicum, and black pepper	Stimulated the activity of digestive enzymes such as pancreas-lipase, proteases, and amylase.	Platel and Srinivasan 2000
Effects on gastro-intestinal tract	Ginger	Increased the intestinal absorption of beta-carotene.	Veda and Srinivasan 2009
	Black peppe (piperine)	Increased gastrointestinal absorption of the coenzyme Q10.	Badmaev et al. 2000
	Dill (seed extracts)	Exhibited mucosal protective and antisecretory effects of the gastric mucosa in mice.	Hosseinzadeh et al. 2002
	Fennel (seed oil emulsion)	Was superior to placebo in decreasing intensity of infantile colic.	Alexandrovich et al. 2003
Lipid-lowering effect	Ginger (oleoresin)	Oleoresin (0.5% ) lowered serum & liver cholesterol.	Gujral et al. 1978
	Ginger (aqueous extract)	Decreased LDL-cholesterol, serum total cholesterol, and triacylglycerol.	El-Rokh et al. 2010
	Ginger (gingerol)	Prevented high fat diet-induced hyper-lipidemia by cholesterol metabolism.	Naidu et al. 2016
	Coriander (seed oil)	Had hypocholesterolemic activities in rats fed a cholesterol-rich diet.	Ramadan et al. 2008
	Rosemary (phenolic compounds)	Protected against hyperglycemia and hypercholesterolemia-induced oxidative stress and improved serum lipid profile.	Labban et al. 2014
	Saffron (aqueous extract)	Reduced the mean systolic blood pressure in desoxycorticosterone acetate salt treated rats in a dose dependent manner.	Imenshahidi et al. 2013
	Tamarind pulp (aqueous extract)	Lowered the levels of plasma total cholesterol, triglyceride, and low density lipoprotein, and increased high-density lipoprotein, with the reduction of body weight.	Azman et al. 2012
Anti-obesity effects	Ginger	Exerted antiobesity effects in C57BL/6J mice.	Misawa et al. 2015
	Ginger (methanol and ethyl acetate extracts)	Reduced body weight, insulin, glucose, and lipid levels as compared to obese control mice with 250 mg/kg for 8 weeks.	Goyal and Kadnur 2006
	Capsicum	Exhibited potential anti-obesity effect through the decrease of the LPL mRNA expression level.	Baek et al. 2013
	Nutmeg	Final body weights and weight gain in the tetrahydrofuran-treated mice were significantly lower than those of the high-fat diet -induced obesity mice.	Nguyen et al. 2010
	Saffron (crocin)	Minimized the leptin levels due to the reduction of fat mass and improvement of insulin sensitivity.	Kianbakht and Hashem 2015
	Tamarind (seed)	Trypsin inhibitor lowered weight gain and food consumption as well as improved plasmatic cholecystokinin contents.	do Nascimento Campos Ribeiro et el. 2015
	Turmeric (curcumin)	Inhibited triacylglycerol and cholesterol synthesis, and the formation of lipid droplet in HepG2 cell as anti-obesity parameters.	Budiman et al. 2015
Antioxidative	Ginger (6-gingerol)	Decreased peroxidation by Fe³⁺/Ascorbate.	Aeschbach et al. 1994
		Prevented against peroxynitrite-mediated oxidative DNA damage and inhibited NO synthesis.	Ippoushi et al. 2003
	Ginger (6-paradol and 6-gingerol)	The pungent components of ginger possessed anti-inflammatory and antioxidative activities.	Surh 1999
	Black pepper (piperine)	Modulated the enzyme systems functioning and minimized oxidative damage in the body.	Vijayakumar and Nalini 2006
Sexual function increasing effect	Black pepper	Fruit extracts potentially affected the sexual drive in male mice by exhibiting a shorter courtship latency.	Sutyarso et al. 2015
	Nutmeg (50% ethanolic extract)	Increased the sexual activity of male rats by increasing the mounting, and intromission frequency, and intromission latency.	Tajuddin et al. 2005
Brain functioning	Black pepper (piperine)	Exhibited anti-depression like property and cognitive enhancing activity.	Wattanathorn et al. 2008
	Ginger	Red ginger had a higher protective effect against Fe²⁺ induced lipid peroxidation compared to the white ginger to protect the brain from oxidative stress.	Oboh et al. 2012
Depressive disorders	Black pepper (piperine) and turmeric (curcumin)	Piperine in combination with curcumin exhibited neurotransmitter enhancing, anti-immobility, and monoamine oxidase inhibitory effects.	Bhutani et al. 2009
Skin disease	Cardamom (essential oil)	Inhibited the production of vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 and macrophage colony-stimulating factor in an in vitro skin disease model.	Han and Parker 2017
Wound healing	Onion	Inhibited the proliferation of human fibroblasts, thus it may prevent pathological tissue outgrowth, especially in patients with keloids.	Pikula et al. 2014
Reduce heavy metals	Coriander leaves	Decreased heavy metals (Pb, Hg, and Cu) from contaminated lorjuk meat.	Winarti et al. 2018